CHAPTER 4
Environmental Science : Biodiversity and Conservation
INTRODUCTION
Today most of us live in a socially and technologically evolved society where our exploitive potential and knowledge of nature has increased academically. The problem is that our contact with it has diminished morally. It may have diminished to such an extent as to be dangerous to us and to the nature itself. Biodiversity is the vast array of all the species of plants, animals, insects and the microorganisms inhabiting the earth either in the aquatic or the terrestrial habitats. The human civilization depends directly or indirectly upon this biodiversity for their very basic needs of survival–food, fodder, fuel, fertilizer, timber, liquor, rubber, leather, medicines and several raw materials. This diversity’s the condition for the long-term sustainability of the environment, continuity of life on earth and the maintenance of its integrity.
Although our understanding of the earth’s organisms–its biological resources- is still imperfect, there is no doubt that the abundance and diversity of living organisms provide many benefits and make our world a beautiful and interesting place to live. Biodiversity is generally described in terms of its 3 fundamental and hierarchically related levels of biological organisms. These are-
Genetic diversity
It includes the genetic variations within species, both among geographically separated populations and among individuals within single population.
Species diversity
It includes full range of species from micro organisms to giants and mammoth varieties of plants and animals, e.g. single celled viruses and bacteria etc. and multi-cellular plants, animals and fungi.
Ecosystems diversity
It studies variation in the biological communities in which species Jive, exist and interact.
Because genes are parts of species, and the species make up ecosystems- the concept of biodiversity reflects an interrelationship among its three components. Biodiversity is distributed uniformly across the globe. It is substantially greater in some areas than in the others. Generally, species diversity increases from the poles towards the tropics- for instance, among the terrestrial systems, the tropical moist forests, which cover only 57% of the earth’s land area, possess as much as over 50% of the world’s species.
LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity is diminished or destroyed in a number of ways either by natural changes or by human disruption. The loss of even a single species is considered as a tragedy as each form of life is a natural storehouse of irreplaceable substances the genetic materials (Ehrlich & Ehrlich, 1982). As species become extinct, the fine balance of nature is disturbed to great extent. The loss of even a single species can alter a food chain/food web, i.e. ecosystem disruption, and upset the delicate balance between one species that preys upon another.
Natural Causes
Species arise through processes of mutation, isolation, and natural selection. Evolution can proceed gradually over millions of years or may occur in large jumps when new organisms migrate into an area or when environmental conditions change rapidly. In a sense, species that are replaced by their descendants are not completely lost. The much larger modern horse, for instance, has replaced the tiny Hypohippus, but most of its genes probably still survive in its distant offspring.
Human-Caused Extinction
Man has a long history of dependence on biological resource hence depletion of resources is obvious. It has never been the pursuit of mankind to completely destroy other species, but in a variety of ways through ignorance or carelessness, we have reduced biological abundance and driven species into extinction. Man as a hunter in Stone Age may have been responsible for the extermination of the “Mega fauna” of both America and Eurasia during the Pleistocene era. Climatic change may have been partially or primarily responsible. Vast usage of bones in Europe and Siberia provide enough evidence that our ancestors have hunted upon animals mercilessly. The loss of species and ecosystems extracts a high price. The water, the air, fertile soils and productive seas as a common resource are all products of healthy biological systems. The scale of human impact on the global biodiversity is huge. It is considered that man has disturbed his own life support system. Tropical forest areas or the world suffer a great loss, which are disappearing at the rate of 17 million hectares (17 sq. kms.) every year (UNEP report, 1992).
The estimation from the fossil record suggests that the average life of a species is about 4 million years. According to an estimate, if there are about 10 million species a year at a moderate estimate, we are now likely to lose around 50,000 species a year over the next decades. According to the IUCN Red Data Book, the following is a broad list of threatened animals:
In a large number of southern countries the seeds of biodiversity destructions were laid during the colonial era. In India, for instance, large-scale commercial forestry started in British colonial times speeded up the rate of forest exploitation for fodder, meat, milk and coffee demand. Deforestation and biodiversity destruction to sustain life after independence by our more recent ancestors added fuel to the fire. Our mental capabilities do not allow us to accept the growing changing demand of time. We still experience a lot of dependence on forest products especially for fuel wood. However, government has provided substitutes of solar driven appliances for cooking and lighting. Still it has failed to decrease pressure on wood resources.
1. Measuring Biodiversity
Diversity can be defined as the number of species found in a community. Hence, biodiversity refers to the species richness of an area. Algorithms of biodiversity have been developed to connote species diversity at different geographical scales as follows:
Alpha Diversity
It indicates the number of species in a single community. The index can be used to compare the number of species in different ecosystem type.
Beta Diversity
It indicates the degree to which species composition changes along an environmental gradient.
Gamma Diversity
It indicates the rate at which additional species are encountered as geographical replacements within a habitat type in different localities.
2. Rio-geographic Classification of India
India has been classified into ten bio geographic zones by the Wildlife Institute of India under the Government’s Bio-geographic Project Table 3.
3. The Value of Biodiversity
Ecosystems and species provide an enormous range of goods and other services - immediate as well as long term, material as well as spiritual and psychological - which are vital to our well being. The values of the earth’s biological resources can broadly be classified into-
Direct Values
Consumptive and productive uses.
Food Resources: Grains, vegetables, fruits, nuts, condiments, tea-coffee, tobacco, liquor, oil from plant resources; and meat, fish, egg, milk (and milk products), honey, etc. from animal resources.
Other Resources: Medicine, fuel, timber, household accessories, fodder, fiber, fertilizer, wool, leather, paint, resin, wax, thatch. Ornamental plants, rubber, creams, silk, feathers, decorative items, etc.
Indirect Values
Non-consumptive uses and options for the future.
1. Carbon fixing through photosynthesis, which provides the support system for species.
2. Pollination, gene flow, etc.
3. Maintaining water cycles, recharging ground water, protecting watersheds.
4. Buffering from climatic extreme conditions such as flood and drought;
5. Soil production and protection from erosion;
6. Maintaining essential nutrient cycles, e.g. carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen and others.
7. Absorbing and decomposing pollutants, organic wastes, pesticides, air and water pollutants;
8. Regulating climate at both macro and micro levels;
9. Preserving recreational, aesthetic, socio-cultural, scientific, educational, ethical and historical values of natural environments.
(i) Consumptive Use. Man is mostly dependent on plant and animal resources for his’ dietary requirements. A major share of our food comes from domesticated crops and animals. Still we derive major of food from wild species. A large section of human population is dependent on food, which we gather from seas, and oceans that is harvested from free roaming wild organisms. Seafood is rich in minerals and vitamins and contains up to 60 percent of the protein. Unfortunately, deforestation, hunting and clearing of forests, grazing and expansion of agricultural lands removes potentially valuable food species and the wild ancestors of our domestic crops.
(ii) Productive Use. Trade and commerce industry is very largely dependent on forests. Besides, timber, firewood, paper pulp, and other wood products, we get many valuable commercial products from forests. Herbs of medicinal value. Rattan, cane, sisal, rubber, pectins, resins, gums, tannins, vegetable oils, waxes, and essential oils are among the products gathered in the wild form forest areas. Like Himalayan forests serve as a storehouse of medicinal herbs, which are presently being used to cure many diseases. Many wild species e.g. milkweeds, etc. are also being investigated as a source of rubber, alkaloids, and other valuable organic chemicals.
(iii) Medicine. Many medicinal and aromatic plants are being exploited in the wild to tap their potential for different ailment cure in the field of drug extraction e.g. Hippophae rhamnoides, Ephedra Kerardiana. Dactylorrahiza hatageria etc. Besides, they are being cultured in plantations and protected in wild to encourage in-situ and ex-situ conservation viz. Valley of flowers, Rohtang in Kullu, Lahu & Spiti Valley. Animal products are also sources of drugs, analgesics pharmaceuticals, antibiotics, heart regulators, anticancer and ant parasite drugs, blood pressure regulators, anticoagulants, enzymes, and hormones.
(iv) Ecological Benefits. Man cannot have control over nature in the wild. It can only put “pressure on resources and pollute environment. Then what makes environment act as a self-replenishing system with respect to resource generation and self- cleanliness. To answer this comes into picture the role of biological communities. The processes of soil formation, waste disposal, air and water purification, nutrient cycling, solar energy absorption, and management of biogeochemical and hydrological
are all beyond the scope of man’s control. Non-domestic plants, animals, and microbes do this favor to mankind by maintaining ecological processes at no cost. These also serve as a library of gene pool. Wild species of plants and animals exercise control over disease-carrying organisms and in suppressing pests. Food chain explains how nature keep a control over population of organisms wherein organisms of small size and larger in number are consumed by organisms large in size and smaller in number to next higher tropic level. Hence, preservation of natural areas and conservation of wild species should be encouraged and practiced to restore the biological wealth.
(v) Aesthetic Use. Wild species of plants and animals have always appealed man’s psyche. Human society has evolved from his early habitat in the forests, which abounds in flora and fauna. Till date his instinct to observe nature in the wild calls him from socially and culturally an evolved society, as tourist from far and wide places. Thousands of tourists visit national park, sanctuaries and forests throughout the country and especially in mountainous areas. A glance of temperate grasslands perhaps the most beautiful landscape pleases and comforts man. All domestic plants have evolved from wild ancestors and food gathering is no longer a necessity for man but still thousands enjoy hunting, fishing and other adventurous outdoor activities that involve wild species. Such environment and playful exercise gives man an opportunity to renew his pioneer skills, and be at mental ease after leading a hectic day in today’s life. Man enjoys his surrounding by decorating it with images of wild animals and plants.
(vi) Cultural Benefits. A particular species or community of organisms may have emotional value for a group of people who feel that their identity is inextricably linked to the natural components of the environment that shaped their culture. This may be expressed as a religious value, or it may be a psychological need for access to wildlife. In either case, we often place a high value on the preservation of certain wild species.
(vii) Option Values. This refers to the use of various species for the benefit of mankind, sometime in future. The hunt for various species under the scope of biotechnology. is already underway for finding solutions to various environmental problems. The environmental issues being addressed to be: pollution as a major problem, ways to fight various disease viz., cancer, diabetes etc., AIDS and others.
4. Biodiversity at Global, National and Local levels
1. Global Initiatives for Biodiversity Assessment
The initiative for biodiversity assessment was taken long back in 1991 with the UNEP Biodiversity Country Studies Project (consisting of bilateral and Global Environmental Facility funded studies in developing countries) implemented in cooperation with donor countries and UNDP. The preparation of it dates back to 1987. Nineteen studies have been completed and several more are in the process of completion. The approach from gene to ecosystem was initiated as a Research Agenda for Biodiversity, IUBS/SCOPE/ UNESCO, Paris (Sol brig, 1991). The agreed text of the Convention on Biological Diversity was adopted by 101 governments in Nairobi in May 1992, signed by 159 governments and the European Union at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held at Rio
de Janeiro in June 1992. At present 174 governments is party to this convention. Apart from this Global Biodiversity Strategy (1992), Global biodiversity; Status of the Earth’s Living Resources (1992), Caring for the Earth; A Strategy for Sustainable Living (1991), Global Marine Biological Diversity: A Strategy for Building Conservation into Decision Making (1993), Norway/UNEP Expert Conference on Biodiversity (1993) and From Genes to Ecosystems: A Research Agenda for Biodiversity (1991) are the milestones on the international biodiversity initiatives. Many more nations are engaged in developing their own National Biodiversity Strategies. Global Biodiversity Assessment (UNEP, 1995) estimates the total number of animal and plant species to be between 13 and 14 million. It further records that so far only 1.75 million species have been described and studied. Ecosystem diversity has not been even reasonably explored as yet. Hence, there seems to be wide gap of knowledge at global, regional and local levels.
Till recent past biodiversity conservation was thought to be limited to saving genes, species and habitats but the implementation revolutionary policies and more awareness has led to the emergence of a framework based upon saving biodiversity, studying and most importantly using it sustainable. Reforms in the field of forestry, agriculture, technology, international trade agreement and watershed management is required. Biodiversity is directly or indirectly related to masses (researchers, government agencies, non-government agencies and private sectors) ‘at all levels of development. Since we depend upon biodiversity our various activities can be linked to its usage and conservation. Therefore, trade, economics, population, land tenure, intellectual property rights and resource consumption & waste are all related to biodiversity conservation. Hence, its sustainable use can be promoted through information, ethics, knowledge and awareness.
2. Levels of Action
Need for biodiversity conservation is realized by all nations of the world because their lies common interest of masses. Most of the resources do not belong to an individual, a nation or a continent. They are simply global. Each and every member on the earth has equal right over it. To limit the loss of biodiversity globally 4 major steps have been realized important at national, regional and local levels.
(i) Global Environment Facility (GEF)
World bank, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) established the GEF in 1900 on a three-year pilot basis. The GEF is expected to commit $ 400 million for the biodiversity conservation issue.
(ii) International Biodiversity Strategy Programme (IBSP)
World Resources Institute (WRI), World Conservation Union (WCU), UNEP together with more than 40 Governmental and non-Governmental organizations have prepared the framework to drastically reduce the loss of biodiversity. This would serve mankind on a more sustainable basis.
(iii) Convention on Biological Diversity (COBD)
Under the aegis of UNEP, more than 100 nations gathered during Earth Summit at Brazil. This was accomplished to workout a legal framework for—
• Governing international financial support for biodiversity conservation,
• The identification of international conservation priorities and
• Technology transfer for conservation and use of biodiversity.
(iv) Agenda 21
Developed through a series of inter-Governmental preparatory meetings with input from a variety of non-Governmental processes including the Biodiversity Strategy Programme— AGENDA 21 provides a plan of action on a number of issues including biodiversity.
INDIA AS A MEGA-DIVERSITY NATION
Lying at the junction of Agro-tropical, Euro-Asian and the Indo-Malayan biogeography realms, India is a country of vast biodiversity in the world and quite a significant one all over the globe. In fact, it is among the twelve “Mega diversity” countries in the world. India is also a “Vavilov” centre of high crop genetic diversity–so named after the Russian agro botanist N.I. Vavilov who identified about eight such centres around the world in the 1950s.
India, a mega-biodiversity country, while following the path of development, has been sensitive to the needs of conservation. India’s strategies for conservation and sustainable utilization of biodiversity in the past aimed at providing special status and protection to biodiversity rich areas by declaring them as national parks. Wildlife sanctuaries, biosphere reserves, ecologically fragile and sensitive areas. It has helped in reducing pressure from reserve forests by alternative measures of fuel wood and fodder need satisfaction. by a forestation of degraded areas and wastelands, creation of ex-suit conservation facilities such as gene banks and eco-development. The challenges before India are not only to sustain the efforts of the past but also further add to these efforts by involving people in the mission.
BIODIVERSITY ASSESSMENT: INITIATIVES IN INDIA
In a most recent attempt to map biogeographically regions, Rodgers and Pan war (1988) attempted to define the biogeographically regions of India. The sub-continent has ten biogeographically zones viz., Trans-Himalayan, Himalayan, Indian desert, Semi-Arid, Western Ghats, Deccan Peninsula, Gangetic Plains, North East India, Islands and Coasts and not yet defined zones for aquatic (freshwater and marine) ecosystems have been mapped. The Wildlife Institute of India has converted these regions on Survey of India digital database.
India is rich in endemic flora and fauna. According to an estimate (Anon., 1983) about 30 per cent plant species are endemic to India. Areas rich in endemism are North Eastern India, the Western Ghats and the North Western Himalayas. A small pocket of -local endemism is also reported from Eastern Ghats (MacKinnon and MacKinnon, 1986). The Project on Study, Survey and Conservation of Elidangered Plants (POSSCEF) has estimated that about 3000-4000 plant species are under different degrees of threat (Nayar & Shastri, 1987). Recently, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India has launched a project viz., National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) which envisages the assessment and stock taking of biodiversity related information at various levels, including distribution of endemic and endangered species and site-specific threats. Key features of this project include emphasis on decentralized planning and use of interdisciplinary working groups to involve all sectors concerned with biodiversity conservation.
HOTSPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY
Areas with rich biodiversity and exhibiting high levels of endemism, which are under immediate threat of species extinction and habitat destruction, are recognized on priority basis worldwide for conservation practices and are known as hot spots. 12 hot spots identified world over represent 14% of world’s plant species in only 0.2% of its -total land surface. 12 mega diversity nations (Mexico, Columbia, Brazil, Peru, Ecuador, Madagascar, Indonesia. Malaysia. India, China and Australia) contain 60-70 % of the world’s biodiversity. Out of the total hot spots worldwide two lies in India. These are represented by North-eastern Himalayas (Khasi jaintia hills and the lower Himalayan slopes embracing areas of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Tripura) and Western Ghats region in the south. These fall under heavy rainfall zones.
The rain forests of the Western Ghats and the eastern Himalayas consist of very dense and lofty trees with a multitude of species occurring in the same area. Hundreds of species
of trees can be identified in a hectare of land besides mosses, ferns, epiphytes, orchids, lianas and vines, herbs shrubs and fungi that make up this. region the most diverse habitat. Giant trees stretch up towards the sun. Buttress roots, anchored within the soil, support the smooth straight trunks, which rise 30 mts. or more before branching out. The spreading crowns effectively block outmost of the light from the light from the ground beneath. Dipterocarpus sp. predominates in these forests and this type of vegetation is often called Dipterocarpus forests.
1. North-east Himalayas
From the dense evergreen and semi-evergreen vegetation of the foothills in the Eastern. Himalaya, the character of vegetation changes at altitudes of 1525 m to 1830 m. Qaks, magnolias, laurels and birches covered with moss and ferns replace the sal, silk-cotton trees and giant bamboos of the foothills. At about 2745 m to 3660 m one enters the coniferous forest of pine, fir yew and junipers. There is undergrowth of scrubby Rhododendrons and dwarfs bamboos. Due to high humidity and much higher rainfall, lichens, mosses, orchids and other epiphytes cover the tree trunks. The animal life in the temperate region is different from the western Himalaya and is characterized by the presence of Indo Chinese fauna. The red panda, hog badgers, ferret badgers, crestless porcupines are typical species of this area. Three kinds of goat antelopes also occur in the eastern Himalaya and are relatives of the European chamois. Goral is a smaller goat antelope found throughout the tract on rugged grassy slopes and on rocky grounds near the conifers forests.
2. Western Ghats
The Western Ghats and the central belt lying to the west of it, is a region of very high rainfall and is characterized by evergreen vegetation, its flora and fauna being a kin to the evergreen rain forest of north-eastern India. Among the macaques the lion tailed (Macaca silenus) is one of the world’s most endangered primates, surviving in the evergreen forests of the Western Ghats of south India, its total population is estimated to be about 800 only. In the langur group, the nilgiri ‘Iangur’ (Presbvtis johni) is a multihabitat species occurring in addition to the shoals, in the temperate evergreen forests above 1700 m altitude in the Western Ghats. A number of climbing animals have evolved gliding mechanisms and are particularly characteristic of these forests. Among these are the flying squirrels. The other characteristic species of the Western Ghats are the Nilgiri mongoose, the stripnecked mongoose, the malabar civet and the spiny mouse.
The flora and fauna of these evergreen regions have not been fully explored. Being a store house of a large variety of plants and animals, these forests represent one of the richest gene pool resources of flora and fauna in the country. Though a large number of such forests have not been destroyed for various plantation crops like rubber, cocoa, coffee etc., whatever virgin forests remain have to be specially protected as in the Silent Valley of Kerala or the rich orchid belt of the north-eastern Himalayas in Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim.
THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
The biggest reason for the current increase in extinctions is habitat loss. Destruction of tropical forests, coral reefs, estuaries. Marshes, and other biologically rich ecosystems
threaten to eliminate thousands or even millions of species in a human-caused mass extinction that could rival those of geologic history. By destroying habitat, we eliminate not only prominent species but also many obscure ones of which we may not even be aware. Over harvesting of food species is probably the most obvious way in which humans directly destroy biological resources. There are many, historic examples of human disturbances of natural systems. Once-fertile areas have become deserts because of unsound forestry, grazing, and agricultural practices. Technology nm” makes it possible for us to destroy vast areas even faster than in the past. Undoubtedly the greatest current losses in terms of biological diversity and unique species occur when tropical moist forests are disrupted.
1. Main Causes of Threat to Species
It is well known now that several plant species have become extinct due to certain natural phenomena, such as land upheavals, volcanic eruptions, glaciations, protracted periods of rain or drought, spreading of desert lands, forest fires and eutrophication in the geological past. While such natural processes in the past had no doubt led to the extinction of flora, the resulting new environmental conditions had also resulted in the evolution and speciation of new flora and migration of floral elements.
But, in recent times man with his anthropogenic associates and other factors or practices such as fire or ‘slash and burn’ for shifting cultivation (also called as ‘jhum’ or ‘podu’ cultivation in India), grazing by cattle and by several other mechanical means, has suddenly accelerated disastrous condition in natural ecosystems. Besides, commercial exploitation of entire plants, roots, rhizomes, tubers bulbs seeds and fruits has been the prime cause of depletion of more important wild economic plants throughout the world for lucrative financial gains, in the trade which flourishes both by legal and illegal means Rauvolfia serpentina, Coptis teeta, Dioscorea sp. and Podophylum hexandrum serve as good examples.
(i) Habitat Destruction
Deforestation has been one of the major causes for the depletion of wildlife. With the increase in human population and the growing need for resources, forests were cleared or for agricultural operations, for human habitation and for grazing their livestock. Technological advance and human progress had a direct bearing on the exploitation of natural resources. Forest trees were cut to yield timber for building houses, for making furniture and for collecting wood as fuel. Industries made a heavy demand on forest resources such as wood for paper- making, exploitation of gums and resins, mining. of forestland for mineral ores, building materials, etc.
Habitat destruction thus has an adverse impact on wildlife as it leads to the loss of an environment, which provides them food and breeding grounds or nesting sites to facilitate rearing of their young ones. Wild animals are left with no alternative but to adapt, migrate or perish. Widespread habitat loss all over the country has diminished the population of many species, making them rare-and endangered. In our race for progress and prosperity we have disturbed the delicate balance of Nature.
(ii) Hunting and Poaching
Uncontrolled hunting of wildlife for pleasure, food, furs. Skins, horns, tusks, etc. pose a serious threat to the survival of wildlife. In India, the Cheetah was hunted to extinction. The illegal trade in animal skins has been responsible for the destruction of a large number
of tigers, leopards, deer, fishing cat, crocodiles and snakes, as well as birds with beautiful plumage. Elephants were hunted for ivory. The rhinoceros was killed for its horns because of the superstitious belief that it contained aphrodisiac properties. There are laws in the country to prevent such illegal trade, but unscrupulous elements, traders and exporters often violate these. Added to this is the practice of trade in exotic mammals, birds and reptiles and use of wild animals in biomedical research.
(iii) Pollution
Pollution of air, water and soil due to various industrial activities not only affect our health, but the health and well being of animal population also. Industrial effluents one reaching water bodies adversely affect aquatic life. Pesticides like DDT and Dieldrin are very harmful. These have a major effect particularly sea birds and their eggs. Oil pollution is another serious problem affecting the seas through leakage from cargo ships or accidents.
Besides there are other numerous factors that affect wildlife population, which are mostly anthropogenic. Introduction of exotic species, unhealthy agricultural practices, diseases introduced by domesticated animals, silting of rivers, floods and droughts are a few to name some. These all have somehow contributed to the process of endangering animal species.
2. Man and Wildlife Conflict
Man by virtue of his nature is destructive and self-centred despite the fact that he is known as social animal. Until he realizes the need of time no rules and regulations may help. The exploitation of forests and wildlife or rare species for commercial purposes should be stopped. A good tiger skin is worth more than five thousand rupees. The tusks of an elephant and the skin of big cats also fetch a good prize. The horns of rhinoceros carry a highly fancy prize. This high market value has lead to unlimited slaughter of these animals.
ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA
The Forest administration in India is more than 100 years old. Efforts to identify plant species as a part of wildlife and to recognize the importance for providing special protection to endangered plant species have so far been negligible. The extinction of certain attractive animals stimulated efforts to protect fauna, but no special heed was given to flora. The word ‘Wildlife’ had till recently been considered synonymous with animal life and consequently, conservations and naturalists have their attention only to conservation of animal species.
It was only in the year 1968 at an International Conference (UNESCO 1968) that the problem of conservation of flora and fauna was appreciated and several recommendations were made urging the International Biological Programme (IBP), .the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural resources (IUCN) and various international and national organizations to initiate studies in to the problems involved, particularly the problem of protecting and preserving wild fauna and flora in their natural habitat/ecosystems establishing nature reserves.
Later at the 10th General Meeting of the IUCN, the Survival Service Commission reviewed the status of endangered species of plants and their habitats. The recent promulgations of the United States Endangered Species Act (1973), the UK Wild Creatures and Wild Plants Act. (I975), development of international conventions on conservations (Wetlands Convention) and the setting up of Biological Records Centre of the Nature
Conservancy, UK, and threatened plants, orchids, cycads tree wide awakening of the need for the conservations, preservation and protection of floras of the world.
According to the Volume 5 of Red Data Book on angiosperms started by the Survival Service Commission of the IUCN in the year 1970 (Melville, 1970), it is estimated that out of the total of three lakes (0.3 million) species of plants in the world, over 20,000 were in the category of either endangered or vulnerable and threatened with extinction by the year 2000 A.D.The following categories of rare species have been recognized by the IUCN, mainly based on (i) present distribution, (ii) decline in number of time, (iii) abundance and quality of natural habitats, and (iv) biology and potential value of the species.
Endangered (E)
Species in danger of extinction and whose survival is unlikely if the casual factors continue operating, included are species whose numbers have been reduced to a critical level or whose habitats have been so drastically reduced that they are deemed to be in immediate danger of extinction.
Vulnerable (V)
Species believed likely to move into the endangered category in the near future if the casual factors continue operating. Included are species, of which most or all the populations are decreasing because of over-exploitation, extensive destruction of habitat or other environmental, disturbance species with populations that have been seriously depleted and whose ultimate security is not yet assured; and species with populations that are still abundant but are under threat from serious adverse factors throughout their range.
Rare (R)
Species with, small world populations that are not at present endangered or vulnerable, but are at risk. These species are usually localized within restricted geographical areas or habitats or thinly scattered over a more extensive range.
Threatened (T)
Threatened is used in the conservation context for species which are in one of the categoriser Endangered, Vulnerable and Rare. Some species are marked as threatened where it is known that they are Endangered, Vulnerable or Rare, but there is known that they are Endangered, Vulnerable or Rare, but there is not enough information to say which of these three categories is appropriate.
Out of Danger (O)
Species formerly included in one of the above categories, but which are now considered relatively secure because effective conservation measures have been taken or the previous threat to their survival has been removed.
Indeterminate (I)
Species that are suspected of belonging to one of the first three categories, but for which insufficient information is currently available.
1. Endemic Species of India
India has a very rich element of endemics in its flora. According to Chatterjee (1940) Indian subcontinent has about 61.5 percent to endemic flora with about 7,000 endemic species
and 134 endemic genera. Of these the Himalayas and the Khasi Hills account for about 3,000 and Deccan peninsula for about 2,000 endemic species. These figures speak eloquently of the great need for protecting the endemics. This can be done effectively by carefully analyzing the floristic composition of the various phytogeographical units of Indian flora and by selecting suitable natural forests in these units and preserving them as ‘Biosphere Reserves’.
Sapria himalayana, Uvaria Inroad, Alcimandra cathcartii Magnolia gustavii, M pealiana, Pachylarnax pleiocarpa, Nepenthes khasiana, Dicentra royler several species of Primula and Rhododendron and the Lady’s Slipperorchids. P. aphiopodilum insigne, P. hirsutissimum, P. faireenum, P. spicerianum and P. venusturm, are some of the noteworthy endemics of the Himalayas and Khasi Hills. Antiaris taxicaria, Campanual cytinoides, Pedicularis perroter and the some species of the Podostemaceae are endemic to Western ghats/the Nilgiri Hills in South India.
2. Endangered Flora and Fauna of India
Some plants and animals have already become extinct and there are many facing danger of extinction. The basic reasons of extinction of wildlife are as follows:
(1) Destruction of their natural habitats due to expanding agriculture, urbanization and industrialization.
(2) Overgrazing by domestic animals that convert the area into deserts.
(3) Poaching for meat, skin, fur, ivory, rhino horns etc.
(4) Export of some species.
The Botanical Survey of India (BSI) could so far complete survey of plant resources. in only about 3/5th of the country. As per the targets set, BSI should have complete survey of the remaining 2/5th of the country by 1998. It is planned to publish National Flora of the country in 24 volumes by 2000 A.D.
The Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) could so far survey only about 1/3 of the country, and is planned to complete the survey of the 75% of the remaining 2/3rd area of the country by 2000 A.D. Sixty-two volumes of Fauna of India are to be brought out by 2000. Data regarding all endangered plant and animal species of the country are also not complete. It was set that data regarding all endangered plant species will be inventoried by 1992, for which BSI had been restructured. In its Annual Report (1987-88); D.O. En. Has reported to publish Vol. I of Red Data Book of Indian plants covering 235 species. Red Data Book of Indian Plants Vol. II containing about 200 rare and endangered species is completed and printed (D.O. En. Annual Report, I988-89). The status survey of Endangered animal species is being done and is claimed to be completed and Red Data Book compiled by 1995.
According to the Red Data Book of IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources), more than 1000 creatures are threatened with extinction, some very soon, some within a decade or so. Among these facing most immediate danger are, all species of rhinoceros particularly the Indian variety the Royal Bengal, and Siberian Tigers, the Mexican grizzly bear, the red wolf, the mountain gorilla; the Arabian oryx and the Asiatic lion.
Indian Endangered Flora
In India, nearly 450-plant species have been identified as endangered, threatened or rare. A list of some such species in different parts of the country is given below (this may not be a complete list).
CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
The hope for conservation of natural biodiversity however rests on preservation of selected ecosystems and representative areas of different vegetation types in the country. as well as on saving some of the extinction-prone species. The number of endangered species of plants and animals is on the rise, which has prompted government and non-governmental organizations to take certain steps in this direction. Forestry and wildlife were primarily under the control of state governments but later on looking to the gravity of the situation a separate Ministry of Environment and Forests was established.
The aims and objectives of wildlife management in India includes the following
(i) Protection of natural habitats
(ii) Maintenance of a viable number of species
(iii) Establishment of biosphere reserves
(iv) Protection through legislation
Some of the non-government organizations working in this direction are
(i) Bombay Natural History Society
(ii) Wildlife Preservation Society of India, Dehradun.
(iii) World Wide Fund for Nature India (WWF)
Laws Governing Biodiversity Conservation in India
(i) The Madras Wild Elephant Preservation Act, 1873.
(ii) All India Elephant Preservation Act, 1879.
(iii) The Indian Fisheries Act, 1897.
(iv) Wild Birds and Wild Animals Protection Act, 1912.
(v) The Indian Forest Act, 1927.
(vi) Bengal Rhinoceros Act, 1932.
(vii) Haily National Park Act.. 1936.
(viii) Bombay Wild, Animals and Wild Birds Protection Act, 1951.
(ix) Assam Rhinoceros Protection Act, 1954.
(x) The Cruelty Against Animals Act, 1960.
(xi) The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
(xii) The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980.
(xiii) Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act; 1991.
Conservation of Forests and National Ecosystems Act, 1994.
IN-SITU AND EX-SITU CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
The goal of biodiversity conservation can be attained in a number of ways. The concept of gene banks regulates all these methods.
In-situ conservation
It can be defined as the conservation of plants and animals in their native ecosystem (natural habitats) or even man made ecosystem, where they naturally occur.
This type of conservation is applicable to wild flora and fauna as conservation is achieved through protection of populations in their natural ecosystems. The concept of protected areas falls under this category e.g. National Parks, Sanctuaries and Biosphere reserves etc.
Ex-situ conservation
It can he defined as the conservation of plants and animals away from their natural habitats, which includes collection of samples of genetic diversity and their treatment in the laboratory, where they are cultured.
The concept of ‘gene banks’ has primarily become the talk for ex-situ conservation as it is important for conservation of agricultural crops and forestry based afforestation programmes. Genetic resource centres fall under this category and include botanical gardens, zoos etc.
INSTITUTIONS FOR “EX-SITU” CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
(a) National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR)
The set up was established in 1976 by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) New Delhi for “Ex-Situ” conservation of plant genetic resources for agri-horticultural and agri-silvicultural activities. Built- in long term cold storage (Gene Banks) have been installed in New Delhi to conserve genetic resources at low temperature of 20°C. At present, NBPGR holds about 48.5 thousand accessions of diverse species of economically important plants (Khanna & Singh 1987). A number of scientific organizations dealing with storage of genetic material of various crop plants have been established in India after independence. They are “Rice Research Institute”, Cuttack, “Potato Research Institute”, Shimla & “Indian Institute of Horticultural Research”, Bangalore.
(b) National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NBAGR)
It was established in the 1980’s in Kamal, Punjab: for preservation of germless of improved varieties of cattle’s-cows, buffaloes, goats, sheep, camels and oxen and their various breeds found in different parts of India. Other organizations for “ex-situ” conservation of animal germplasm are “National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources”. Lucknow and Wildlife
Research Institute of India, Dehradun. At WRI a “gene bank” of all wild and domesticated animals of India is coming up.
Protected areas of India for “In-Situ” Conservation of Biodiversity:
Three types of protected areas-
(i) Wildlife Sanctuaries;
(ii) National Park;
(iii) Biosphere Reserves were created in India for “In-Situ” conservation of biodiversity.
As on 31 March, 1994 there were 421 Wildlife Sanctuaries, 75 National Park, 14 Biosphere Reserved in India covering about 4% of total geographical area. In-situ conservation of wildlife is a comprehensive system of protected areas. There are different categories of protected areas, which are managed with different objectives for bringing benefits to the society. The major protected areas include: (i) National Parks, (ii) Sanctuaries, (iii) Biosphere Reserves etc. These areas vary considerably in size, design, purpose and effectiveness of management.
conservation
gene pool conservation
(i) National Park
According to the Indian Board for Wild Life (IBWL), “a National Park is an area dedicated by statute for all time to conserve the scenery, natural and historical objects, to conserve the wild life there in and to provide for enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means, that will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations with such modification as local conditions may demand”.
The history of National parks in India begins in 1936 when the Hailey (now Corbett) national parks of United Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh) was created. The area is declared for the protection and preservation for all time of wild animal life and wild vegetation for the benefit and advantage and enjoyment of the general public. In this area hunting of fauna or collection of flora is prohibited except under the direction of park authority.
(ii) Sanctuary
The Indian Board for Wild Life has defined a sanctuary as, ‘An area where killing, hunting, shooting or capturing of any species of bird or animal is prohibited except by or under the control of highest authority in the department responsible for the management of the sanctuary and whose boundaries and character should be sacrosanct as far as possible. By June 1992 India had 416 sanctuaries. The Board has further clarified the position by stating that while the management of sanctuaries does not involve suspension or restriction of normal forest operation, it is desirable to aside a completely sacrosanct area within a sanctuary to be known as ‘Abhyaranya’. It has also indicated that sanctuaries should be made accessible to the public.
In India sanctuary is usually created by an order or gazette notification of State government. So the weakness of a sanctuary is that it can be desanctuarized merely by another order or gazette notification of a State government because it is not safeguarded by any proper legislation. The idea behind a wild life sanctuary and a national park is same, i.e., maximum protection, preservation and conservation of wild animals. But the fundamental difference between the two is that a sanctuary is created by order of a competent authority, who may be the chief conservator of forest: or minister of a State, while a national park can be harmed, abolished or changed only by the legislation of a State. There are, title status and degree of permanency and protection is much higher in a national park than in a sanctuary. In a wild life sanctuary private ownership rights may continue and forestry usages also may continue so long as wild life conservation is not adversely affected. However, in a national park all private ownership rights are extinguished and all forestry and other usages are prohibited. Every national park should have the minimum requisites of fauna, flora and scenery etc. There should be sufficient means of management and protection in a sanctuary to be upgraded as national park.
(iii) Biosphere Reserves
Biosphere Reserves have been described as undisturbed natural areas for scientific study as well as areas in which conditions of disturbance are under control. These serve as the centres for ecological research and habitat protection, The “Biosphere consists of two main zones as:
UNESCO launched biosphere Reserve National Programme in 1971 under its Main and Biosphere Programme (MAB). The main objectives of the programme are as follows:
• Conserve biological diversity
• Safeguard genetic diversity
• Provide areas for basic and applied research
• Opportunity for Environmental Science and training
• Promote international cooperation
• Promote management of biotic resources.
In January 1989, 274 biosphere reserves had been established in 74 countries out of which 14 proposed sites found place in India. These are as follows:
The country falls under 2 realms and 12 biogeographical provinces as under:
Ladakh, Himalayas, Highlands, Malabar, Bengal, Indus-Ganga, Assam-Burma.
Coromondal Deccan, Thar Desert, Lakshdweep, Andaman, Nicobar Islands.
Position in India
India’s Department of Environment functions as the nodal agency for United National Environment Programme (UNEP), the South Asia Cooperation Environment Programme (SACEP) and the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resource (IUCN). India has been actively participating in the various sessions of UNEP with a view to ensure that programmes are more relevant to the developing countries.
The South Asia Cooperative Environment Programme has recently set up the inter- governmental organization with Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Iran as its members. At the 1981 ministerial level meeting, areas were identified for implementation. India was assigned the focal point responsibilities in the areas of Environment Education, Environmental Legislation and Wild Life Management. At the 1983 Government Meeting of SACEP number of projects have been identified for implementation in the area of Energy, Environmental Science, Legislation and Environmental Impact Assessment. India has a number of on-going Bilateral Programmes with both developed and developing countries.
The Constitutional directives (Art. 48 and 51-A) and development policy have provided a strong base for enactment of legislative measures as required for environmental protection.
There are several laws enacted from time to time, which are directly related to environmental protection. Among them more recent ones are the Insecticides Act, 1968, Wildlife Protection Act 1972, Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974, Water Pollution Act 1977, Forest Conservation Act 1980 and the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
The Endangered Species Act
Passage of the U.S. Endangered Species Act of 1973 and the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) in 1976 represented a powerful new approach to wildlife protection. Endangered species are those considered in imminent danger of extinction, while threatened species are those that have declined significantly in total numbers and maybe on the verge of extinction in certain localities. Valuable species are naturally rare or have been depleted by human activities to a level that puts them at risk. Bald eagles, grey wolves, brown (or grizzly) bears, sea otters, and a number of native orchids and other rare plants are considered either vulnerable or threatened.
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)
The 1975 Conventional International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) was a significant step towards worldwide protection of endangered flora and fauna. It regulated trade in living specimens and products derived from listed species. India is a signatory to this convention. The signatory countries unanimously agreed upon:
(i) That wild flora and fauna in their natural habitat is irreplaceable.
(ii) That the nations are aware of the ever-growing value of wild flora and fauna from aesthetic; scientific, cultural and recreational viewpoint.
(iii) That people of all nations hold a collective responsibility of the protection of flora and fauna.
(iv) That international cooperation is a must to prevent trade in endangered species of plants and animals.
Special Projects
Project Tiger
A fast decline of the tiger population lead to the set up of a special task force in 1970 by the Indian Board for Wildlife to prepare an action plan to conserve the tiger population in India. As a result ‘Project Tiger’ was launched on 1 April 1973 with the following objectives:
• To maintain a viable population of tigers for scientific, cultural and ecological values.
• To preserve areas rich in biodiversity as a national heritage for the education and enjoyment.
In 1973-74 nine Tiger Reserves were established to promote elimination of all forms of human exploitation and disturbance from the core zones.
Gir Lion Project
The Asiatic lion is now confined to the Gir Forest of Gujarat. The sanctuary harbored nearly 200 of them. The great reduction in the number was due to the increased threat from overgrazing, depletion of prey species, etc. The Asiatic lion was in danger of being wiped out either due to starvation, epidemics or human interference. In 1972 the State government
prepared a scheme for the management of the Gir Lion Sanctuary with proper guidelines for conservation. The Centre provided assistance for the protection and improvement of the habitat.
Himalayan Musk Deer Project
The musk deer (Moschus moschiferus) which was once found throughout the Himalayan tract has terribly suffered due to its musk been used in the preparation of perfumes and medicine. Secondly the habitat destruction brought about a sharp decline in their population. A conservation project was therefore launched at the Kedarnath sanctuary in U.P.
Crocodile Breeding Project
The three varieties of crocodile population viz., gharial (cavialis gangeticus), the mugger (Crocodylus palusstris) and the salt-water crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) witnessed a sharp decline by the early 1970s. With the assistance of the UNDP, the Government of India launched a crocodile breeding and management project. The project was initially launched in Orissa in the year 1975. The project scheme was subsequently extended to U.P., Rajasthan, W.B., T.N., A.P., Gujarat. Kerala, M.P., Maharashtra, Andamans, Assam, Bihar and Nagaland. As a result the population of all the three species has considerably increased.
Project Elephant
The Project Elephant was launched with a view to protect and conserve the elephant population of the country. Project Elephant aimed at restoring degraded habitats of elephants. Creation of migration corridors, elimination of human interference and establishment of a data base on the migration and population dynamics of elephants e.g. elephant habitat restoration work was done in Rajaji National Park.
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