CHAPTER 2 Environmental Science : Natural Resources

CHAPTER 2 

Environmental Science :

 Natural Resources

INTRODUCTION

A natural resource may be defined as any material given to us by nature which can be transformed in a way that it becomes more valuable and useful.

For an example wood is used for making furniture. Yarn obtained from cotton is used for weaving cloth. Likewise, various machine, tools and household goods are made of metals. Now furniture, clothes, machine, tools are more valuable than their raw form i.e. raw form

i.e. wood, cotton and metal, respectively. The  wood,  metal  resources.  It  is  impossible  to obtain valuable items from any resources. Thus, water, minerals, forests, wildlife as well as human beings are resources. Any material may be called, as a resource provided  and appropriate technology is available to transform that into more valuable goods.

Renewable and Non-renewable Resources

On the basis of continuity, the resources are classified as under:

(1) Renewable Resources

(2) Non-renewable Resources.

1. Renewable Resources

Resources, which can be renewed along with their exploitation, are always available for use. Hence they are called renewable resources. For instance, forests are renewable. If trees are felled for wood, original forest covers may be maintained through planning new trees

i.e. a forestation. Likewise, solar energy and wind energy are examples of renewable resources.

2.Non-renewable Resources

The formation of some resources like iron ore, coal, mineral oil etc. has taken several thousand years. Once they are used in unlimited way, they cannot be easily replaced. Thus, their exploitation at large scale will result in their fast depletion. Some such resources are called non-renewable resources or exhaustible.

3. Cyclic Resources

For resources there is no final use as they can be used continuously. For example, water used in industry and domestic ways can be cleaned and used again  for  similar  or  other purpose. Such resources are given the name of Cyclic Resources.

FOREST RESOURCES

1. Importance of Forest Resources

The importance of forest resources can be explained as under:

1. Ecological Balance: Forests and wildlife are essential to maintain ecological balance of an area.

2. Renewable Natural Resources: Forests are an important renewable natural resources.

3. Eco-system: Trees dominate forest ecosystem; their species content varities in different parts of the world.

4. Economic Development: Forest contributes to the economic development of the country because they provide goods and services to the people and industry.

5. Environment Quality: The forest enchance the quality of environment by influencing the life supporting system.

6. Safeguard against Pollution: Forest check air pollution and soil erosion. Thus, they exercise safety and against pollution.

7. Soil Conservation: Forest save the hill-slopes from landslides.

8. Wind Erosion:  In  deserts,  trees  reduce  wind  erosion  by  checking  wind  velocity.

9. Check the Extension Balance: The forest checks strong gales and keeps the soil intact beneath the roots of trees and thus checks extension of desert.

10. Maintains Ecological Balance: The forest check pollution of air through increasing oxygen content of the air.

11. Attract Rainfall: By causing condensation of water vapour in clouds, forests attract rains.

12. Control Floods: The floods are controlled because forests dry up rainwater like sponge.

13. Linked with Cultural and Civilization: Forests are  linked  with  our  cultural and civilization.

14. Supply of Raw Material: Forest supply wood, which is used as under:

(i) Fuel,

(ii) Raw material for various industries as pulp, paper, newsprint, board;

(iii) Timber for  furniture  items;

(iv) To be used in packing articles like fruits, tea etc.

(v) For preparing matches, sport goods etc.

15. Minor forest products: Some examples of minor forest products, are canes, gums, resins, dyes, flocks, medicines, tannins, lac, fibres, katha etc.  . For tribal people are provided with food like tuber, roots, leaves, fruits, meat from birds and other animals etc.

       16. Employment opportunities: About eight crore people are employed in wood based industries like paper and match and small and cottage industries. Besides, those who are employed in the forest department in various states.

17. Revenue Receipts: The forest provide Rs. 400 crores per year as revenue to the government.

18. Fodder for Cattle: Forest provide fodder to cattle.

19. Foreign Exchange Earners: Forest produce a great number of articles like essential oils, resins and dyes. Which find market in foreign countries. Nearly Rs. 50 crores are earned in foreign exchange through selling lac, terpentine oil and sandal wood oil to abroad.

Thus, the forests are nation’s wealth. They are useful to us directly and indirectly.

Areas Covered with Forests in India

Forests are a estimated form time to time. Some data collected in the basis of researches made, are as under:

Brewbaker (1984)

According to Brewbaker, to 2890, total forest are of the world in 1990 was nearly 700 Mha. By 1975 it was reduced to 2890 Mha. It was also pointed out that it would be merely 2370 Mha by 200 A.D. Major reduction will be in tropics

According to Central Forestry Commission (CEF) (1980) in India the forest cover was around 74.8 Mha. It was 22.7% of the total land mass. A detailed study of forests carried out by CEF reveals the position of forests in India as under:

(a) The tropical dry deciduous (38.7%).

(b) The tropical moist deciduous (30.9%)

 Type.

(c) The tropical thorn 6.9%

(d) The tropical dry evergreen 0.1%

(e) The pure coniferous (high mountainous area) 6.3%

(f) The sal forest 16%

(g) The teak forest 13%

(h) The broad-leaved  excluding  Sal  and  Teak  55.8%

(i) The Bamboos including in plantations 8.8%

Ownership

(a) The total forest are nearly 96% (71.63 Mha) forest area is Government owned.

(b) 2.6% (1.95 Mha) forest area is owned by corporate bodies.

(c) 1.2 Mha forest area is in private owneship.

Total area under forests in different states during 1972-75 and 1980-82 is as under:

State/U.T.

Total Forest Area (Sq. Km)

1972-75

1980-82

Andhra Pradesh

49049-40435

Assam

21055-19796

Bihar

22687-20139

Gujrat

9459-5057

Haryana

757-401

Himachal Pradesh

15075-9130

J & K

22335-14361

Karnataka

29480-25656

Kerala

8611-7376

M.P.

108568-90215

Maharashtra

40682-30350

Manipur

15090-13575

Dadar & Nagar Haveli

177-70

Meghalaya

14390-12458

Nagaland

8154-8095

Tripura

6330-5138

Orissa

48383-39425

Punjab & Chandigarh

1120-499

Rajasthan

11294-5972

Tamil Nadu

16676-13187

U.P.

25869-21022

West Bengal

83476483

Sikkim

1761-2883

Arunachal Pradesh

51438-58104

Delhi

18-10

Goa, Daman & Diu

1221-1139

Mizoram

13860-11970

Total

551886-457046

State Percentage of Forests Area

The following is the list of percentage of total  area  in  a  state  occupied  by  forests 

Distribution of Forests

The forest region in India are divided into eight distinct forest regions. These are as under:

(i) The Western Himalayan region

The region extends from Kashmir Kumaon. Here are the forest of pine, confers and broad-leaved temperate trees. Higher up, forests of blue pine spruce and silver fir occur.

(ii) The Eastern Himalayan region

This region comprises Darjeeling, Kureseong and the adjacent tract.  The  temperate zone has forests of oaks, laurels, rhodendrons, maples, alder and brich.

(iii) The Assam region

This region comprises the Brahamputra and the Surma valleys and the interveing hill ranges. The region has evergreen forests, occasional thick clumps of bamboos and tall grasses.

(iv) The Ganga plain region This region covers the area from the Aravali rangers to Bengal and Orissa. Widely different types are found only in small areas in the forests.

(v) The Deccan region This region  has  various  kinds  from  scrub  jungles  to  mixed  decidous  forests.

(vi) The Malabar region 

This region is rich in forest vegetation. Besides, it produces important commerical crops, such as cocount pepper, coffee, tea. Besides, rubber, cashewnut and eucalyptus trees.

(vii) The Andaman region This region is rich in evergreen, semi-evergreen, mangrove, beach and diluvial forests.

To conclude, there are nearly 45,000 species of plants including shrubs in the country. The vascular flora, which forms the conspicuous vegetation cover itself comprises 15,000 species.

OVER CONSUMPTION ON FORESTS REASONS

Population is increasing tremendously in our country. It has already crossed thousands of millions. Meeting its ever-increasing demand has resulted in over consumption of forests.

1. Fuel wood, Timber and Pulpwood

The data show that (FAO, 1981) consumption of wood in developing countries is exactly the reverse of the developed ones. In the former, wood is used 82% for firewood and 18% respectively, In India, firewood demand is mostly  in  rural  areas  because  the  alternative source of energy, are yet to reach there. The National Commission on Agriculture (NCA) had indicated a substantial  rise  in  demand  for  wood  by  200  A.D.  for  firewood  and  industry  as is evident from the table given below:

2. Wood for Packing Purposes

Wood is needed, on a large scale, for our fruit industry, tea etc. It is estimated that for wooden crates nearly 0.5 Mm3 of wood is need (U.P. 01, J & K, 0.25 M, H.P. 0.15 Mm3).

3. Paper Board and Newsprint

With the rapidly increasing population growth our per capita consumption of paper is increasing from 2 kg to 4.5 kg per year. Bamboos and hardwood are the chief sources (70%) of raw materials for paper and board. Growing demand for 2.45 Mt will enhance dependence on bamboo and hardwood.

It is evident from the data that the pulpwood had gone to nearly 6 percent of the wood requirement by 2000. More than half of the pulpwood comes from bamboo as is shown in following table.

There is a substantial in newspaper industry. As per data per capita requirement have gone upto 1. 1 kg by 2000, thus, the newsprint capacity was raised to 1.289 Mt. Following are the estimated requirements for raw materials for newsprint.

It is evident that shortfall of  newsprit  would  grow  rapidly  as  well  as  continuously  by the passage of time.

DEFORESTATION : MEANING AND RESULTS

Meaning of Deforestation

Deforestation is the process of felling trees indiscriminately resulting in nude or semi- nude surface of the hill hitherto covered by thick forests.

Causes of Deforestation

Main causes  responsible  for  deforestation  are  as  under:

(a) Felling of  trees  to  meet  the  ever  increasing  demand  of  the  cities.

(b) Grazing by the local cattle, goats, sheep etc. They not only destroy the vegetation but also pull out the roots of plants. After denudation of our Himalayas, the process of deforestation started in the Shivalik range. Shivalik sal forests were over-exploited for industry use, i.e. railway sleepers etc. Consequently, the foothills of the Shivaliks are in semi desert conditions.

(c) Meeting out the growing hunger for land. It has hit the ecology of the country badly very soon India is likely to have more of wasteland than productive land. Large-scale deforestation has badly affected the weather facing almost each year more of bleak than the normal weather.

(d) The increase in shifting (jhum) cultivation in North east and Orissa has also laid large in forest tracts bare. As the jhum cycle is shortened to six years only (in some districts, even 2-3 years only), too short period does not provide enough time for natural repair of damaged ecosystem.

(e) A major cause of deforestation has been the construction  of  hill  roads.  About  a decade back, they were about 30, 000 km long. Most of these roads are in state and most fragile belt of Himalayas. Road construction damaged the protective vegetation cover both above and below roads. It blocked natural and pollution streams.

Formidable Picture of Deforestation

Deforestation has been causing tremendous land erosion and land slides. India is losing about 6,000 million ton of top soil annually due to water erosion in the absence of trees. The loss worked out from the top soil erosion in 1973 was Rs. 700 crore, in 1976, 1977 and 1978 it was Rs. 889 crore. Rs. 1,200 crore and Rs. 1,091 crore respectively. The figures in recent years have risen formidably too high. Increasing number of livestock and migrating glaziers have led to degradation of forests and the consequent devastation. Data show that about two decades back these were nearly 1200 thousand sheep and goats in alpine areas of U.P. In addition, there also visited about 25,000 migratory graziers. There were also about 5-7,000 buffaloes owned by Gujars. Consequently, the forestry stock decreased from 13.79 m3/head in 1981 to 2.66 m3/head in 2001.

Evil Consequences of Deforestation

With deforestation ecological balance maintain by nature breaks away. Floods or drought are the terrible consequences. The trees, increase rainfall of an area, as well as conserve the water which falls on the ground rain. Consequent to deforestation, the plant  reduces evaporation allowing water to remain in solid for a long time.

In our country unabated deforestation  over  grazing  and  the  growing  hunger  for  land has hit the ecology of India badly. If it goes on, we may soon have more of wasteland than productive land. Large-scale deforestation has badly affected the weather. Evil consequences of deforestation can be summed up as under:

1. Adverse Effect on Productivity

It is noticed that the devasting effects of deforestation in India include soil, water and wind erosions, estimated to cost over 16,400 crores every year. Deforestation affects productivity of our croplands in two ways as under:

(i) The deforestation increase the soil erosion increase manifold. The soil  so  washed leads to an accentuated cycle of floods and drought.

(ii) Deforestation creates to use cowdung and crop wastes as fuel mainly for cooking. As a result no part of the plant goes back to loss in soil fertility.

2. Land/Erosion and Landslides

Deforestation has been causing  tremendous  land  erosion  and  landslides.  Data  reflect that about 6,000 million ton of topsoil is lost annually due to water erosion in the absence of trees. The loss worked out from the topsoil erosion in 1973 was Rs. 700 crore. The figures for the years 1976, 1977 and 1978 are Rs. 889 crore, Rs. 1,200 crore and Rs. 1,091 crore respectively.

3. Low Per Capita Forestland

As far as per capita forestland is concerned, India today is the poorest in the world. The per capita forestland in India is 0.10 hectare compared to the world average of 1 hectare.

TIMBER EXTRACTION: MINING, DAMS AND THEIR EFFECTS IN FORESTS AND TRIBAL PEOPLE

Timber Extraction

It is estimated that India is losing 15 million hectares of forests cover year. If this trend continuous unchecked, it could take only a period 9 of 20 years hence to reach to zeroforest value in our country. During a period of 25 years (1951-1976) India has lost 4.1 million hectares of forests area. Trees have been felled in large number of fuel, fodder, valley projects, Industrial uses, road construction etc. India consumes nearly, 170 million tonnes of firewood annually, and 10-15 million hectares of forests cover is being stripped every year to meet fuel requirements. The rise in fuelwood consumption can be noticed from the comparative study of the fuel consumption in earlier years. It was 86.3 million ton in 1953. It reached about 135 million ton in 1980. During a period of 20 years (1951 to 1971) forests have been cut for various purposes as under:

(1) For Agriculture (24-32 lack hectares)

(2) River valley  projects  (4.01  lakh  hectares)

(3) Industrial uses  (1.24  lakh  hectares)

(4) Road construction  (0.55  lakh  hectares)

(5) Miscellaneous uses (3.88 lakh hectares)

In this way, a total of 3.4 million hectares of forests were lost during this period. The disastrous of the heavy deforestation are  visible.  Nearly  1  percent  of  the  land  surface  of India is turning barren every year due to deforestation. In the Himalayan range, the rainfall has declined from 3 to 4 percent.

Mining

It is often remarked that in our country most mining work has been unscientific. Consequently no heed is paid to environment protection. The consequences have been disastrous. For example:

(1) They have developed large tracts that lost productivity.

(2) There have been water and air pollution, despoliation  of  land  and  deforestation, noise and ground vibration problems etc.

As such, to ameliorate the situation, the mined areas to be reclaimed for agriculture, forestry, fisheries and recreation. During last 20-30 years, a number of mining operation have been started in the country. These operations affected forest and cultivated land areas. Such operations have been taken mainly in U.P., Bihar, M.P., Orissa and Andhra Pradesh. The result are as under:

(1) The use of land scale for townships, communication, excavation and transport affected the socioeconomic and ecology of these areas.

(2) Ecological problems developed in coal mine areas in Ranchi, Hazaribagh (Bihar), Bina Project (U.P.) and Singular complex at Gorbi (U.P.) and Jayant (M.P.).

Some illustrations are as under:

(1) Ranchi

In Ranchi  several  hundred  sq.  km.  of  land  has  been  converted  to  bad  lands.

(2) Singrauli

In Singrauli complex forests and hillocks have been erased due to construction of high power transmission lines, roads and rail tracks. Establishment of other factories as cement and super thermal power stations around coal mines have resulted into environment degradation.

Reclamation of Mined Areas

There are two successful cases of reclamation of mined areas  in  India.  These  are  as under:

(1) Neyveli Lignite Corporation Ltd. in Tamil Nadu.

(2) Stone Quarries of Sayaji Iron Works in Gujarat.

It is felt, there is need to have legal protection and to revise the Mines and Minerals (Regulations and Development) Act, 1957 (MMRD Act) to bring in it the environment concerns.

Dams

We can classify the environment side effects of river valley and hydel projects into three categories as under:

(i) Impacts within  and  around  the  area  covered  by  the  dam  and  reservoir.

(ii) Downstream effects caused by alternation in hydraulic regime, and

(iii) Regional effects in terms of overall aspects including resources use and socio- economic aspects.

The impacts caused by construction of dams and reservoir in including the  following effects and consequences:

(1) The various change in the microclimate.

(2) The loss of vegetal cover.

(3) Soil erosion.

(4) Variation in water table.

(5) Enhanced seismic  activities  due  to  pressure  of  water.

It should be kept in mind that the nature and magnitude of the impacts vary with the project locations and the conditions therein. It can be elucidate with the help of illustration:

(1) In hilly tracts, blasting operations for road construction can cause considerable damage to the environment through the following activities:

(a) Loosening of hill sides and resultant landslides,

(b) Sedimentation of  reservoirs

(c) Drying up of spring and flash floods.

(2) The creation of new settlements for the workmen and  rehabilitation  of  project outsees in the watershed areas may result in the aggravation of the seriousness of advance impacts. In our country a number of big, medium and minor dams are undertaken mainly for three purposes-irrigation, power generation and water supply. The country’s first Prime Minister, Jawharlal Nehru, hailed  these  dams  as  the Temples of Modern India. They have increased agricultural production, power generation and reduced dependence in imports.

However, on the contrary to the advantages enumerated above, some experts opine that the social, environmental and even economic cost of these dams, far outweighs their benefits. They hold that the most important social consequences of big dams has been the displacement of million of tribals from their homeland and their eventual influx into urban areas, almost as refugees. This is the reason why the scientists, environmentalists, journalists, social activists, lawyers and bureaucrats have now raised their voice against big dams.

Results of opposition

Mounting opposition from scientists and environmentalists has completed the Govt. to review a number of proposed dams in the light of their impact on local tribals, flora and fauna as under:

(i) First was  the  scrapping  of  the  silent  valley  project  in  Kerala.

(ii) Second example is Koel and Karo project in Bihar. This was also given up due to opposition from local people. They held that it would have displaced several thousands of Santhal tribals in the area.

Four Major Projects

The four  major  projects  which  have  generated  much  controversy  are  as  under:

(i) Sardar Sarovar  Project,  Gujrat.

(ii) Narmada Sagar Project, M.P.

(iii) Bodhghat Project, M.P.

(iv) Tehri Dam Project in U.P.

Although the above projects have been given environment clearance, struggle is still on the force of the Govt. to drop these projects. A brief description of these projects and their possible effects are as under:

1. Sardar Sarovar (SS) Project

This project is near Navagam in Bharuch district of Gujrat.

It is one of the costliest projects affecting villages in three states—M.P., Maharashtra and Gujrat. If it is carried out, its effects would be as under:

(i) About 245  villages  will  be  submerged,  of  which  about  193  in  M.P.  alone.

(ii) Over 75,000 (nearly 50,000 in M.P. alone) people will be evicted.

(iii) Additional displacements is likely to be caused during social and environment rehabilitation work undertaken  to  repair  the  dislocation  and  damages  caused  by the project.

It is evident that compensatory afforestation and setting of wildlife sanctuary will displace or affect other villagers in the area. The relevancy is evident from the fact that it has been officially admitted that nearly 43,000 ha of land will be needed for rehabilitation of SS oustees.

2. Narmada Valley Project (NVP)

It claims to be the world’s largest river valley project. It has attracted the greatest attention. The 30 big dams and over 3,000 medium and minor dams are envisaged at cost of Rs. 25,000 crore. Its effects are anticipated as under:

(i) It would  displace  over  one  million  people,  mostly  tribals.

(ii) It would submerge 56,000 ha fertile agriculture land.

(iii) Total forest  areas  nearly  60,000  ha.  will  be  destroyed.

(iv) Nearly 25 species of  birds will  be deprived  of their  habitats.

3. Bodhghat Project

This project is on Indravati river in M.P. The project is in heavily forested Bihar district. Its effects are anticipated as under:

(i) The project will destroy teak and sal forests.

(ii) It will spell doom for the last surviving wild buffaloes.

The criticisms of the project forced the Govt. and the World Bank to reconsider it.

4. Tehri Dam

This Dam is proposed on the Bhagirathi river in U.P. at the foothills of Himalayas. It is Soviet-financed and challenged in the Supreme Court. Its effects are envisaged as under:

(i) This Dam will displace over 85,000 people.

(ii) It will totally immerse the Tehri town  and  completely  or  partly  submerge  nearly 100 villages.

(iii) The site  of  the  Dam  is  prone  to  intense  seismic  activity.

(iv) The 3,200 million ton of water that the Dam would impound, could cause a major earth tempor.

(v) In the event of a disaster, the entire religious townships of Deoprayag, Hardwar and Rishikesh would be devastated.

(vi) Thousand of  hectares  of  rich,  agriculture  land  will  be  drowned.

WATER RESOURCES: USE AND OVER-UTILIZATION OF SURFACE AND GROUND WATER

Water claims  to  be  an  important  resource.  An  important  use  of  water  in  our  country is for irrigation. Besides, water is also required in large amounts for industrial and domestic consumption.

Significant of Water

The significant of  water needs no elucidation. It is as under:

(1) It is revealed by the history of human civilization that water supply and civilization are most synonymous.

(2) Several cities and civilizations have disappeared due to water shortages originating from climatic changes.

(3) Millions of people all over the world, particularly in the developing countries, are losing their lives every year from water-borne disease.

(4) An understanding of water chemistry is the basis of knowledge of the multi- dimensional aspects of aquatic environment chemistry, which involve the sources, composition, reactions, and transport of the water.

(5) About 97% of the earth’s water supply is in the ocean, which is unfit of the remaining 3%, 2% is locked in the polar ice-caps and only 1% is available as fresh water in rivers, lakes, streams, reservoirs and ground water which is suitable for human consumption.

Unlike land, which remains available as it is, the availability of water varies from place to place and time to time. Our country is a monsoon land. The bulk of rainfall is confined to a brief period of 3-4 months that is from July to October. As such, large part of the country lacks surface water supply for a greater part of the year.

Surface Flow

1. River

Surface flow takes place through 14 major river systems. They are Brahmani, Bhrahmaputra, Cauvery, Ganga, Godavari, Indus, Krishna, Mahanadi, Mahi, Narmada, Periyar, Sabarmati, Subarnarekha and Tapti. Between them, the position is as under:

(a) They share 83% of the drainage basin,

(b) They account for 85% of the surface flow,

(c) They house 80% of the total population on the country.

Besides, there are 44 medium and 55 minor river system. These rivers are fast flowing, monsoon fed and originate in the coastal mountains of the major river viz Brahamputra, Ganga and Indus basins along with Godavri. They cover more than 50% of the country.Only 4, Brahamputra, Ganga,Mahanadi and Brahmani are perennial. Their minimum discharge is of 0.47 Mm3/km3 year.

2. Lakes and Ponds

Lakes:

 Lakes are  inland  depressions  that  contain  standing  water.  They  may  vary  in size from small ponds of fewer acres to large seas covering thousands of square miles. They may range in depth from a few feet to over 5,000 feet.

In a  lake,  there  are  three  to  five  well  recognized  horizontal  strata  namely:

(i) Shallow water near the shore forms the littoral zone. It contains upper warm and oxygen rich circulating water layer zone. The littoral zone includes rooted vegetation.

(ii) Sublittoral zone-extends from rooted vegetation to the non-circulating cold water with poor oxygen i.e. hypolimnion.

(iii) Limnetic zone is  the open water zone away from the shore.

(iv) Profundal zone is the deep-water area beneath limnetic zone and beyond the depth of effective light penetration.

(v) Abyassal zone is found only in deep lakes, since it being at about 2,000 metres from the surface.

Pond: 

Ponds are considered as small bodies of standing water so shallow  that  rooted plants can grow over most of the bottom. Most ponds and lakes have outlet streams and both are more or less temporary features on the landscape the  reason  is  filling,  no  matter  how slow, is inevitable.

Stratification of Ponds

Ponds have little vertical stratification. In them littoral zone is large than and limnetic zone and profundal zone. In a small pond the limnetic profundal zones are not found. The warm top layer, the epilimnion is heated by the sun and homogenised by the wind and other currents. On the contrary to it, the deep cold layer, the hypolimnion is not heated by sun and not circulated by wind. The basis upon which the layers are maintained is strictly thermal and is caused by the fact that the warmer water is lighter than the colder water. After the formation of a thermocline, no exchange of water occurs between the epilimnion and hypolimnion.

Physico-Chemical Properties of Lakes and Ponds

Lakes have the tendency to become thermally stratified during summer and winter to undergo definite seasonal periodicity in depth, distribution of heat and oxygen. Light also penetrates only to a certain depth, depending upon turbidity.

Kinds of Lakes

On the basis of physical factors and productivity, etc., different classifications of lakes exist:

(1) Based on temperature

Hutchnson (1957) classified lakes into dimitic, monomictic and polemicist lake. There are as under:

(i) The dimictic lakes exhibit two overturns every year, while monomictic lakes present only a single overturn per year.

(ii) The monomictic lakes may be cold monomictic  and  monomictic.

(2) Cold Monomictic

It is characterized by a circulation only during summer:

(i) Warm Monomictic: It has a circulation in winter as well.

(ii) Polomictic lakes present circulation throughout the year.

Based on the human acid content the lakes of world have been classified into clear water lakes and brown water lakes,

(a) The brown  water  contains  high  humus  content.

(b) Clear water  takes  may  be  divided  into  two  types  as  under:

(i) The oligotrophic type

Its water is poor in nutritive plant material and show nearly equal distribution of oxygen during summer and winter months. Its mud bottom contains little organic material;

(ii) The eutrophic type

It is rich in nutrients. At greater depth  below  the  thermo  cline  in  summer  eutrophic lakes show a considerable reduction in oxygen content and their mud bottom is composed of typical muck.

3. Lotic Ecosystems or Moving Water

Moving water or lotic ecosystems include rivers, streams, and related environments. They are of various sizes ranging from Ganga, Yamuna, Hindon, Kali Nadi, Sutlez, Gomti, etc to the trickle of a small spring. Likewise, there is distinction on the basis of flow. On one hand there are raging torrents and waterfalls and on the other hand, the rivers whose flow is so smooth as to be almost unnoticeable. Every river varies considerably over its length, as it charges from a mountain brook to a large river.

Main Characteristics of Lotic Environment: Moving water differ from lakes and ponds as under:

(i) Current is a controlling and limiting factor.

(ii) Land water interchange is great because of the small size and depth of moving water systems as compared with lakes.

(iii) Oxygen is almost always in abundant supply except when there is pollution.

(iv) Temperature extremes  tend  to  be  greater  than  in  standing  water.

(v) The most distinctive features of moving water ecosystems are those related to their motion i.e. the rate of flow and the streams velocity. The rate of flow refers to the volume of water  passing  a  given  observation  point  during  a  specific  unit  of  time; It is measured in units such as m3/sec, ft3 or acre-feet/sec.

(a) Rapidly flowing water

Rapidly flowing water can be defined as the portion of the streams in which the flow is both rapid and turbulent. Consequently everything that is not attached or weighty is swept away by the current. This includes organisms and sediment particles alike. The substrate tends to be rock or gravel. The fragments are gradually rounded and smooth by the water.

(b) Slowly flowing water

A slowly flowing water ecosystem is a very different type of system from the fast streams. The flow is both slower and more likely to be laminar. The results are that the erosive power of the stream is greatly reduced, hence, smaller sediment particles (sit) and decaying organic debris, are deposited on the bottom. Besides, the slow streams have higher temperature. Consequently, planktonic organisms, espeically protozoans, occur in large number in this ecosytem. In some moving streams, the bottom muds contain more organic material than mineral fragments. In slow water streams oxygen concentration is main limiting factor. The high level of animal activity, along with an active detritus stream. Besides, the low level of turbulence means that less oxygen is in corporate into the water at surface. Thus the dissolved oxygen content of a slowly moving stream is likely to be much lower than that of a fast-moving stream.

4. Estuaries

Water of all streams and rivers eventually drain  into  the  sea.  Estuaries  is  the  place where this freshwater joins the salt water. As such estuaries  are  the  transitional  zones between the sea and rivers and are the sites of unique ecological properties. They are semienclosed coastal bodies of water that have a free connection with the open and within which seawater is measurably  diluted  with  freshwater  from  river.  However,  all  the  rivers are not open into estuaries. Some rivers simply discharge their runoff into the ocean. Estuaries are not alike. Instead they differ in size, shape and volume of water flow, they are influenced by the geology of the region in which they occur. As the river reaches the encroaching sea, the stream carried sediments are dropped in  the  quiet  water.  These  accumulate  to  form deltas in the upper reaches of the mouth and shorten the estuary.

The Position of Surface Water in the Country

India has been bestowed with substantial surface water  resources.  Overall  water resources of the country have been assessed at  1880  km3  annually.  Of  thus,  it  may  be possible to harness about 690 km3 of water for beneficial use. In addition, Ground Water Resources of the Country are assessed at about 452 km3.

Storages

India has constructed a large number of storages and  diversions  for  harness  its  vast ware potential.

(1) Live storages built-up in the completed projects so far is about 163 km3.

(2) Another 7  km3  of live  storage  will  be  available  from  project  under  construction.

(3) 131 km3 from projects under consideration.

(4) In addition, there is a large number of small tanks whose storage adds upto about 30 km3.

Total Hydro-Power Potential of the Country has been assessed at 84,000 mW at 60 per cent load factor. Presently, Completed and on-going Schemes will exploit about 15,600 mW

i.e. 20 per cent of the assesses potential.  Hydropower  installed  capacity  at  the  end  of  the Sixth Plan was 14, 450 mW. Forming about 34 per cent of the total installed capacity.

In the absence of  information  on  actual  water  use  by  various  sectors,  estimates  made in this regard (1985) indicated that water use may be of the order of 530 km3 is from surface Water and 180 km3 from Ground Water. Out of this, 470 km3 is for Irrigation and 70 km3 for other including Domestic (16.7 km3), Industrial (10 km3) and Thermal Plants (2.7 km3) requirements. A recent assessment puts domestic requirements in 1991 at about 26 km3.

Basin-wise Water Resources Development for 12 Major River Basins is given in the following table:

The surface water resources continue to the contaminated with run-off water from agricultural fields, containing pesticides, fertilisers, soil particles, waste chemicals from industrial and sewage from cities and rural areas.

During the dry months, water scarcity is faced even in the places like Cherrapunji and Konkan, which receive heavy rainfall. Due to the unequal distribution of  rainfall  our countrymen face problems of flood and famine in some parts every year.

The mass balance of annual rainfall that about 70% is lost by direct evaporation and transpiration by plants, while the remaining 30% goes into the streamflow shows it. The approximate breakup of this streamflow, as consumed by man, is 18% for irrigation, 2% for domestic use, 4% for industrial and 12% for electrical utilities. Irrigation for agricultural purposes and electric power plants are the major consumer of water.

Growth Water

Ground water resources are abundant only in the northern and coastal plains. In other parts its supply is not adequate. Ground water is roughly 210 million m3. This quantity includes recharge through infiltration, seepage and evaporisation. Even at present, our country has not been able to provide safe drinking water to all villages and towns.

Ground water contains dissolved minerals from the soil layers through which it passes. In the process of seepage through the ground, the water gets depleted of most of the microorganism originally present in the surface water. Though the salt content may be excessively high on occasions, it is generally superior as a  domestic  water  source.  Surface water contains a lot of organic matter and mineral nutrients, which feed algae  and  large bacteria populations.

The total replenishable Ground Water Resources in the Country have been provisionally estimated at  45.23  million  hectares  meters  per  year.  Of  this,  6.93  million  hectares  metres is for drinking, industrial and other uses leaving 38.34 million hectares metres as utilisable Ground Water Resources for Irrigation.

Basin-wise/State-wise break-up  of  the  potential  is  given  in  the  Table  2  (next  page).

Over-utilization of Water

It transpires from our water budget that,  in  case  average  annual  rainfall  of  entire country and its total area are taken, the total water resources are of the order of 167 million hectare meters. In fact, only 66 million-hectare meters of water can be utilised by us for irrigation. As there are some financial and technological constraints we plant to use it fully only by 2010 A.D. By 1951 only 9.7 million ha metre water was used for irrigation. By 1973 it was as much as 18.4 million ha metres.

It is observed that Agriculture sector is the major user of water. The water used for irrigation which was two decades back nearly 40% has gone up to 73% by 2000 A.D. Irrigation use is very inefficient. Hence, 25-30% efficiency and method of irrigation are to be changed drastically. From the data on water use shown  in  the  table  given  as  under,  it  becomes evident that irrigation including for livestock and including power use is 79.6% and 13.7% water respectively. Thereafter, come domestic (3.5%) and industrial (3.3%) uses.

In case the land area is taken up as a unit, the position could be different. By 1984- 85 the land under irrigation almost tripled to 67.5 million ha.

After a period of five years i.e. by 1990 another 13 million ha were to be brought under irrigation, thus, the total figure was 80 million ha. This may be adjudged against the total potential of 133 million ha by 2010 A.D. Here it may be kept in mind that it is the gross sown area and not net sown area.   The former  i.e. net sown area at present, more than 3% of the net sown area is under irrigation.

It is estimated by World Health Organization (WHO) that water thirsty countries are across the oceans. Nordic water supply (Norwegian company) has been transporting fresh water i.e. clean drinking water in giant floating bags across the oceans. These floating bags are made long. Each contains 35,000 tonnes of water. The floating water bags are made of a polyester plant to build new bags of the size of supertanker, 300 metres long and a capacity of 1,00,000 tons water. In this way the Nordic company is engaged in the business

of towing fresh water from Turkey to Greek island. Its future plans include transporting water from Iran to Saudi Arabia and along Caribbean and Red Sea.

Water Supply

In our country water supply is scanty. We have more than 3000 towns, but hardly 2000 have an organized water supply. It  is  essential  to  augment  coverage  of  water  supply  in urban as well as rural sectors. At present the position of water supply is as under:

(1) Low daily per capita supply,

(2) Inefficient distribution,

(3) High leakage and ill managed system.

This is the position in towns. In rural sector  progress  in  water  supply  has  been  very slow. There are  about six  lakh villages  involved in  which our 76%  population lives.

Previously they were provided safe drinking water through piped water supply systems or hand pumps operated tube wells. Efforts are on and it is an expected picture that supply could be brought to about more than one lakh villages. The picture is somewhat improved during the Water Supply and Sanitation Decade (WSSD) (1981-90).

To solve the water problem, some other precautionary measures are to be taken. We have to use minimum water. The quantity of water returning after use becomes the waste water. The data for water use in our country show that waste that by 2000 A.D. out of 1900 Mm3 of water available, the country had used about more than 50% of the available water (about 1092 Mm3) for four major consumptive uses-irrigation, power generation, domestic and industrial uses.

It is held that for sustainability at least more than half of the total available water should be used annually. The country has overshot the 50% mark by 2000 A.D. which is not in our ecological interest.

Water Resources Management

Some of the central and corresponding state originations concerned with specific aspects of water resources  management are as  under:

(1) Central Pollution Control Board

Concerning Water Quality

(2) Central  Water  Commission 

Commission Surface Water

(3) Central Ground Water Board

Concerning Ground Water

(4) Indian  Metrological  Department

Concerning

Precipitation

(5) Central Public Health and Sanitation

Concerning

Water Supplies

Environment Engineering

and

Sewage Disposal

(Ministry of  Urban  Development)

(6) Ministry of Agricultural and ICAR

Concerning

Water use for Agricultural

(7)   Department  of    Environment Wildlife (Ministry of

Concerning

Environment Forests and Impact

MEASUREMENT TO CHECK OVER-UTILIZATION OF WATER RESOURCES

In our country the Ministry of Water Resources is entrusted with the function of laying down policies and programmes for development and regulation of the country’s  water resources. Under its jurisdiction come the following:

(1) Sartorial planning,

(2) Co-ordination,

(3) Policy guidelines,

(4) Technical examination  and  tech-economic  appraisal  of  projects,

(5) Providing central  assistance  to  specific  projects.

(6) Facilitation of external assistance and assistance in the resolution of interstate water disputes,

(7) Policy formulation, planning and guidance in respect of minor irrigation,

(8) Command area development

(9) Development of  ground  water  resources  etc.

Evidently, its jurisdiction is quite wide. It  was  in  September  1987  that  the  National Water Resources council adopted the National Water Policy. The council  laid  stress  on  the truth that ‘Water’ is a prime natural resource, a basic human need and a precious national asset. As such, its over consumption and wastage should be discontinued at every cost. It held that planning and development of water resources need to be governed by national perspectives.

Since 1987, a great number of issues and challenges have emerged in the development and management of the water resources sector. As such, it was felt necessary to review the National Water Policy. The same was done and the (Revised) National Water Policy was adopted by the National Water Resources Council in its fifth meeting held on 1 April 2002 at New Delhi. All the states besides the centre are required to adopt immediate measures in order to achieve the desired objectives of the policy, each state has to formulate its own State Water Policy, backed with an operational action plan in a time-bound manner, the period so stipulated is a period of two years.

Assessment of Water Resources

It is assessed that the average run-off in the river system of the country is 1,869 km3 (cubic kilometers). It is estimated that of this, the utilisable portion by conventional storage and diversion is about 690 km3. Besides it, the replenishable grounder water potential in the country is estimated at 432 km3. A fall is visible in the per-capita availability of water at national level from about 5,177 m3 (cubic meters) in 1951 to the estimated level of 1,869 m3 in 2001 with great variation in water availability in different river basins.

Irrigation Development

India has a culturable area of 1850 lakh hectares of which 1410 lakh ha. is sown area.

Sustained and Systematic Programme for Development of Irrigation Facilities in the Country was taken up with the advent of Planned Development in  1951.  The  Irrigation potential creation during the Pre-Plan Period was 226 lakh  ha.  of  which  97  lakh  ha.  were from Major and Medium Irrigation and 129 lakh ha. from Minor Irrigation Schemes. The cumulative irrigation potential increased to about  675  lakh  ha.  by  the  end  of  1984-85.  Of this 300 lakh ha. were from Major and Medium Irrigation Projects  and  375  lakh  ha.  form Minor Irrigation Schemes. The target  of  additional  potential  during  the  Seventh  Plan  was 129 lakh ha. of which 43 lakh ha. was  from  Major  and  Medium  Irrigation  Projects  and  86 lakh ha. from Minor  Irrigation  Schemes.  The  Approval  Outlay  for  the  Seventh  Plan  was about Rs. 14,360 crore for Major, Medium and Minor Irrigation Programmes and about Rs. 1,671 crore for the Command Area Development Programme.

The additional irrigation potential achieved during 1985-90 in regard to  Major  and Medium Irrigation was 30 lakh ha and 84.4 lakh  ha.  Minor  Irrigation  Schemes.  The  main thrust of the Development Policy for the Irrigation Sector is toward achieving the assessed target of 1,130 lakh ha. of gross irrigation potential; in the country based on  convention methods of diversion and storages by 2010 AD. or so. are expected to be irrigation eventually from Major and Medium Projects and the balance by Minor Schemes.

Plan wide Development

In every plan/five year efforts were made to create and utilize potential and ground water/resources of the country.

Plan achievements in this direction are as under:

Table 2.3

Plan Position of Irrigation Created and Utilised

Plan Period

Potential created (mha)

Potential utilised (mha)

Pre-Plan period

9.70

9.70

First Plan  (1951-56)

12.20

10.98

Second Plan (1961-66)

14.33

13.05

Third Plan  (1961-66)

16.57

15.17

Annual Plan  (1966-69)

18.10

16.75

Fourth Plan  (1969-74)

20.70

18.39

Fifth Plan  (  1974-78)

24.72

21.16

Annual Plan  (1978-80)

26.61

22.64

Sixth Plan  (1980-85)

27.70

23.57

Seven Plan  (1985-90)

29.92

25.47

Annual Plan  (1990-92)

30.74

26.31

Eight Plan  (1992-97)

32.95

28.41

Ninth Plan  (1997-98)

Annual Plan  (1997-98)

33.62

28.90

Annual Plan  (1998-1999)

34.27

29.78

Annual Plan  (1999-2000)

35.10

30.44

(Provisional)

Ninth Plan  (1997-2002)

42.77

37.12

(Provisional)

Source: Planning Commission Document-Ninth Plan (1972-2002) and Annual Plan (2000-2001).

Common Area Development Programme

The Centrally-Sponsored Command Area Development (CAD) Programme was launched at the beginning of Fifth Plan (1974-75) with the special objective of ensuring a faster and better utilization of irrigation potential in selected Major and Medium Irrigation Projects in the Country. Its main objective were as under:

(1) To improve the utilization irrigation potential.

(2) To optimise agriculture production and productivity from irrigation lands on a sustainable basis.

(3) To integrate all functions related with irrigated agriculture through a multidisciplinary team under an area development authority.

Programme broadly covers on-farm development works which include construction  of Field Channels, field drains, land-leveling and shaping wherever necessary, farm roads, consolidation of holdings and realignment of boundaries, Introduction of Warabandi or rotational supply of water and Setting-up off WFH wireless network for better communication in order to ensure equitable and assured supply of irrigation even to the tail end holdings, arrangement for supply in inputs and credit, agriculture extension, construction of markets and godowns, and development of ground water for conjunctive use. The programme covering 152 selected major and medium irrigation projects  in  20  states  and  two  union  territories with total cultural command area of a little over 200 lakh ha. is being executed through the various command area development authorities.

During the seventh plan, more emphasis was laid on improving water management and water delivery system,  adaptive  trials,  training  of  field-level  staff  and  farmer,  monitoring and evaluation of the programme and involvement of farmers in water management.

Financing of C.A.D. programme  is  from  three  sources,  namely  central  assistance  to states on matching basis for certain selected items, state government’s own sources and institutional credit for works, land development, marketing and storage.

From 1986-87, the financing pattern has been revised, according to which construction of field Channels from outlets for five  to  eight  ha.  Blocks  is  being  financed  on  matching grant, 50 per cent to be borne by  the  centre  and  the  remaining  by  states.  In  the  seventh plan, allocation for CAD programme  was  Rs.  500  crore  in  the  central  sector  against  which an expenditure of Rs. 497 crore was incurred.

It was decided to include on pilot basis suitable minor irrigation project of State/UTs north-eastern region including Sikkim Jammu and Kashmir and  Himachal  Pradesh  for command area development.

The ultimate objective of CAD programme is to provide agricultural production in Command Area. Every CAD administrator has been advised to undertaken intensive crop- cutting experiments for each crop season so that the rise in agricultural productivity in Irrigation Commands can be effectively monitored. The Central Government has also decided to provide cent percent cost of training of Orientation of Senior-level Officers involved in the Programme.

By March 1990, physical achievement under the programmed includes 111 lakh ha. of area provided with field channels, 19 lakh ha. of land-levelled and 49 lakh ha covered under the Warbandi.

Note : Courtesy Research and Reference Division Ministry of  Information  and  Broadcasting Govt. of India.

Major and Medium Irrigation Projects

The irrigation projects with a Culturable Command Area ( CCA) of more than 10,000 ha. are classified as major projects and project with a CCA of more than 2, 000 ha. and upto 10,000 ha, are categories as medium projects.

Between 1951 and 1985, 246 Major and 1,059 medium project were taken up  for execution. Among them, 65 Major and 626 Medium Projects were completed by 1985. During the seventh plan, 18 new medium project were taken up. Out of the  199  major  and  462 medium projects in hand, 37 major and 185 medium projects are expected to have been completed during the seventh plan period.

In 1974, 60 major and medium irrigation projects were begun, with a Culturable Command Area (CCA) of about 15 mha. Later on, a number of projects were included while a few were deleted. At present, the number of programmes with CCA of 22.78 mha. The projects are spread over 28 States and two Union Territories. The great concern is reflected from the fact that since inception, and amount of Rs. 2,452.33 crore has been spent for different activities of the programme. An amount of Rs. 148.27 crore has been spent during 2001-2002.

The programme involves execution of On Farm  Development  (OFD)  works.  A  few  of them are as under:

(1) The construction  of  field  channels  and  field  drains.

(2) The land levelling and shaping.

(3) The conjunctive  use  of  surface  and  groundwater.

(4) Warabandi or a rotational system of distribution of irrigation water is undertaken. The sole aim behind it, is to ensure equitable and timely supply of water to farmer’s fields.

Suitable measure and adopted, for example, adapting trials/demonstrations and training of farmers and functionaries of implementing departments are encouraged with a view to disseminate the technical know-how among farmers with mainly two purposes:

(i) First, for adopting suitable pattern and

(ii) Second, for  improving  farm  practices  without  deterioration  of  soil  health.

During the ninth plan 1997-2002. The ministry has identified three items of work as thrust areas, these items of workers are as under:

(i) Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM),

(ii) Reclamation of  waterlogged  in  the  command  of  on-going  CAD  projects,  and

(iii) Dissemination of  technical  knowledge  to  farmers  and  functionaries.

It is rightly realized that the popular participation, that is, the involvement of farmers in the management of irrigation  is  essential  for  better  utilizations  of  water  for  irrigation with  a  view  to  encourage  an  incentive  to  Farmers  Associations/Water  Users’  Associations, a one-time function grant of Rs. 500 per ha. (To be shared as Rs. 255 per ha, by state and Rs. 50 per ha. by Farmers’ Associations) is provided to registered and function Farmers’ Associations. Emphasis is laid on dissemination of technical know-how among functionaries and farmers. Keeping it in view, adaptive trials/demonstrations in the farmers’ fields and training of farmers and functionaries has been an important  activity.  It  would  be  called  a great achievement that upto March 2002, 441 projects had been included for treatment of waterlogged areas in the CAD commands.

Minor Irrigation Scheme

Ground water development, which constitutes bulk of the Minor Irrigation Programme, is essentially a People’s Programme implemented primary through individual and co-operative efforts with finance obtained mainly from institutional sources. To encourage use of water- saving devices such as Sprinklers, Drip Systen, Hydrams, Water Turbines and Hand Pumps, the Government subsidies are made available to Small and Marginal  Farmers  for  their purchase.

Minor Irrigation Schemes provide instant and reliable source of irrigation to cultivators. It also provides critical help in improving the status  of  irrigation  and  controlling  water- logging and Salinistion in Canal  Command,  Minor  Irrigation  Surface  Water  Projects,  which are financed through plan Funds, often chronically drought-affected areas. Initial investment on these schemes is comparatively low and they can be completed quickly. Moreover, these schemes are labour-intensive and offer employment to the rural people. 

Minor Irrigation Schemes Comprise all groundwater and surface water schemes, having a culturable Command Area (CCA) up hectares individually. The development of groundwater is mostly done through individual and cooperative efforts of farmers, with the help of institutional finance and through own saving. Finance is arranged for surface minor irrigation schemes from the public sector outlay.

The following table reflects the Irrigation potential created and utilised under minor irrigation during the various plan periods

Irrigation Potential Created and Utilised Under Minor Irrigation

It is since the Seventh Five Year Plan that the Ministry of Water Resources has been implementing the Centrally sponsored Plan Scheme “Rationalization of Minor Irrigation Statistics (RMIS)”. Under this scheme, the first census of minor irrigation projects with reference year 1986-87 was conducted in all the States/UTs execpt Rajasthan. Its report projects was conducted with reference year 1993-94. Its report was published in March 2001.

Thereafter, the third census of minor irrigation project with reference year 2000-2001 was conducted in all the States/UTs except the UTs of Daman and Diu and Lakshadweep.

It is felt that some Regions are lagging behind. Hence Central Loan Assistance is being given to the North-Eastern States, Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. KBK districts of Orissa are also being provided with the assistance since 1999-2000 for minor irrigation works.

To condude, a great endeavor is being made at the Government level to economise the expenditure of water for irrigation purpose.

REGULATION OF GROUND WATER UTILIZATION AND RESTRICTING ITS OVERUTILIZATION

Water is vital for realising full potential of agriculture sector and Country’s Development. Optimum development and efficient utilization of our water  resources,  therefore,  assumes great significance.

The erstwhile Department of Irrigation was redesignated as Ministry of Water Resources in October 1985, and assigned the nodal role for development, conservation and management of water as a National Resource. Water being the most crucial element, National Water Policy was adopted in September 1987. The policy recommends need for integrated and multi-disciplinary approach to planning, formation and implementation of projects. It also lays down priority areas for planning and operation of systems. Highest -priority has been assigned to drinking water followed by irrigation, Hydropower, navigation, industrial and other users. The Policy further recommends that the quality of Surface and Ground Water should be monitored.

In Flood Management Sector, the need for having a ‘Master Plan’ for Flood Control and Management for each Flood Prone- basin through sound Watershed Management was recognised in the policy and establishment of extensive network for flood forecasting recommended. The policy further recommended the erosion of land by sea or river be minimised by suitable cost-effective measures. Therefore, planning and management of this resource and its optimal, economical and equitable use with application of Science and Technology has become a matter of utmost urgency.

The Ministry is responsible for broadly laying down Policies and Programmes for development and regulation of the Country’s Water Resources. Its role essentially covers Sectoral Planning, Coordination, Policy Guidelines, technical examination, assistance in water resources projects and facilitation of external help and assistance in resolution of disputes as a result of inter-state problems.

The Central Ground Water Authority

The Central Ground Water Authority was set up in 14th January 1997 under the Environment protection Act, 1986. It is vested with the responsibility of making an assessment

of the groundwater potential of the country through hydrological surveys, exploration, evaluation and monitoring of ground water regime.

Present Position of Ground Water

The total replenishable groundwater in India is estimated to be about 43.39  million- hectare metres per year (about 43.86 billion cubic metres). Out of it, about 7.13-mha m/yr of groundwater is reserved for domestic and industrial uses and 36.26-m.h.a m/yr is available for irrigation. According to an estimate, there has been a development of 37.24 per cent of available groundwater resources.

It is a sad affair that out of 5,711 block/talukas/mandals/watersheds in the country, 310 block/talukas/mandals/watershed are categoriesed as “over-exploited”. Over exploited indicates the stage of groundwater development which exceeds the annual replenishable recharge. Besides, 160 blocks/talukas/mandals/watersheds  are  found  and  classified  ‘Dark’  i.e.  the stage of ground water development is more than 85 per cent.

Various Steps

Various steps in the direction of regulation and control of the development and management of ground water resources in the country are taken as under:

(1) National Commission for Integrated Water Resources Development Plan

The National Commission for Integrated Water Resources Development Plan was constituted in September 1999. The commission submitted its report to the union Government in December 1999. The report  is  quite  exhaustive  and  valuable.  Several  recommendations are made. These are mainly for development of water resources for drinking, irrigation, industrial, flood control, transfer of surplus water to deficit area etc.

(2) Central Water Commission

The Central Water Commission (CWC) New Delhi, is the National Apex Organization in Water Resources Development charged with the responsibility of initiating, co-ordinating and furthering in consolation with state government concerned, schemes for control, conservation and utilizations of water resources for irrigation, flood control, Hydro-power Generation and navigation through the Country. With its rich expertise built over the last four decades, CWC has developed considerable technological know-how in planning, investigation, design, project appraisal and management of Water Resources Development. It is sharing its knowledge and expertise with the Developing Countries. The commission’s work are divided into four functional wings viz Water Planning, Design and Research, River Management and Planning and Progress supported by Administration and Co-ordinate Wing.

The commission has set-up a National of 570 Hydrological Observation Stations. Since most of the Stations were set-up during 1960’s and early 1970’s Data Records are now available for nearly two decades. Besides, Guage and Discharge Observation and Sediment Flow Measurements are carried out in selected 248 Stations and Water Quality observation in stations are in operation in the Ganga Basin over the Past Two Decades. During 1978- 85, Water Quality Monitoring with respect to Population Loads, was conducted at 42 Selected Stations on the Ganga under a ‘Special Scheme’ and a Status Report’ on water quality of the Ganga System was published in Auguest, 1987. Although the ‘Special Scheme’  was closed, Water Quality Monitoring in the Ganga System was continued and  the  ‘Status Report’ on the water quality of Ganga System published in 1987 is being up-dated.

The Ministry of Water Resources constituted in February, 1990  an  Environment Monitoring Committee under the Chairmanship of Member, Water Planning, Central Water Commission, with representatives of concerned Ministries to have periodical and effective monitoring of the implementation of environmental conditions laid down by the Ministry of Environment and Forests at the time of clearance of projects. Out of the 82 Irrigation Multi- purpose and Flood Control Projects for which the Ministry of Environmental Monitoring Organization  of  Central  Water  Commission  has  stipulated  environmental  safeguards  and site visits by the committee.

The project authorities of the remaining 72 projects have been requested to set-up Project-Level Environment Monitoring Committee and Report the progress to the Environmental Monitoring Committee. The committee has already visited and assessed the situation in respect of Three Projects identified for close monitoring.

(3) Central Soil And Material Research Station

The Central Soil and Material Research Station, New Delhi,  is  a  premier  organization which deals with Geo-mechanics and construction of material problems relevant River Valley Project Construction. It  plays  an  active  role  in  imparting  knowledge  to  Engineers  involved in the construction, designs etc. by holding nation  level  workshops  with  the  help  of  the United Nations Development Programme Experts.

(4) Subordinate Organizations

The Ministry of Water Resources has the following Six Subordinate Organization:

(1) Central Water and Power Research Station, Pune;

(2) Central Ground Water Board;

(3) Farakka Barrage Project, Murshidabad;

(4) Ganga Flood Control Commission, Patna;

(5) Bansagar Control Board, Rewa;

(6) Sardar Sarovar Construction Advisory Committee, Vadodara.

(5) Central Water and Power Research Station

The Central Water and Power Research Station, Pune, is devoted to applied and fundamental research in energy resources and water-borne transport, Research activities for the stations are carried-out in Ten Laboratories. since 1979, it is the Reorganised Regional Laboratory if the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific for studies related to Inland Waterways and Water-borne Transport. It’s clientele is drawn from Arab Countries, Africa and South-East Asia.

(6) Central Ground Water Board

The Central Ground Water Board, New Delhi, is the National Apex Organization to carry-out and guide scientific development and management of Ground Water Resources from the National Perspective. It handles all waters relating to Hydro-Geological Surveys, exploration, assessment, development and scientific management of the country’s Ground Water Resources. The main activities of the organization include Macro- level Hydro-Geological Surveys and Investigations, Deep-Exploratory Drilling Coupled with Geo-physical Logging and Pump-Tests to study Hydro-Geological Features and National-wise Monitoring of Ground

Water Regime and its quality through  a  network  of  Hydrograph  Stations.  Data  generated from investigations undertaken by the board provides a scientific base for preparation of Hydro-geological Maps, Atlases, delineation of Ground Water Worthy Areas and Formulation of Ground Water Development Schemes. Beside advising the state governments on planning, financing and administration of Ground Water Development Schemes, the board undertakes, ‘Water Balance Studies’ and organizes training of personal of all levels and disciplines of its own and other state and Central  Government  Organisation  including  nominees  of International Organisations.

The board has completed an area of 29.89-lakh sq. upto the end of March 1990, out of the total area of 32.9 lakh sq  k.m.  of  the  Country  under  Hydro-geological  Surveys  and planned to complete the remaining by  1991.  For  the  monitoring  of  Ground  Water  Regime, the board established a National Network of 12, 450 Hydrographs  Stations.  Ground  water levels are being monitored by these stations quarterly in January, April/May, August and November. Data is analysed to study impact of various input and  output  components  on Ground Water Regime. The board is presently having a fleet of 92 different kinds of Drilling Rigs for Ground Water Exploration.

The board, through its, ‘Specialises Cells’ has initialed studies in the Field of Mathematic Modelling, Data Storage and Retrieval and Ground Water Pollution.

It has also provided assistance to the National Drinking Water Mission for locating sites for drinking water and to suggest suitable and economic structures to tap Ground Water for Drinking Purpose in the Rural Areas.

RIVERS IN INDIA

Rivers in our Country may be classified as:

(i) Himalayan Rivers,

(ii) Peninsular Rivers,

(iii) Coastal Rivers,

(iv) Rivers of the Inland Drainage Basin.

(i) Himalayan Rivers

The Himalayan Rivers are perennial as they are generally snow-fed and have reasonable flow throughout the year. During  the  monsoon,  the  Himalayas  receive  very  heavy  rainfall and the rivers discharge the maximum quantity of water causing frequent floods.

(ii) Peninsular Rivers

The Peninsular Rivers are generally rain-fed and therefore, fluctuate in volume.

(iii) Coastal Rivers

A large number of the streams are Non-Perennial. The coastal streams, especially on the West Coast are short in length and have limited Catchment Areas. Most of them are flashy and non-perennial.

(iv) Rivers of the Inland Drainage Basin

The streams of the Inland Drainage Basin, is the largest in India receiving waters from an area which comprises about one-quarter of the total area of the Country. Its boundaries are well defined by the Himalayas in the North and the Vindhyas in the South. The Ganga flows through Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal  in  India  and  enters  Bangladesh thereafter. It has Two Main Headwaters in the Himalayas: the Bhagirathi and the Alkananda, the former rising from  the  Gangotri  Glacier  at  Gomukh  and  the  latter  from  a  Glacier  short of the Alkapuri Glacier. The Ganga is joined by a number of Himalayas Rivers including the Yamuna, Ghaghra, Gomti,  Gandak  and  Kosi.  The  Western-most  River  of  the  Ganga  System is the Yamuna, which rises from the Gangotri  Glacier  and  joins  the  Ganga  at  Allahabad. Among the important rivers flowing North  from  Central  India  into  the  Yamuna  and  the Ganga and the Ganga are the Chambal, Betwa and Sone.

Test Brahmaputra

The Brahmaputra and the Barak Rivers flowing from East to West in North-eastern Region are International Rivers and have immense Water Resources Potential, which is still in the initial stages of development.

The Godavari

The Godavari River in the Southern Peninsula has the Second-Largest River Basin covering 10 percent of the area of India. Next to it is the Krishna Basin in the region while the Mahanadi has the third-largest basin. The Basins of the Narmada in the uplands of the Deccan flowing to the Arabian Sea and of the Kaveri in South falling into the Bay of Bengal are about the same though with different character and shape.

The Tapti and the Penner

Two other River Systems, which are small but agriculturally important, are those of the Tapti in North and the Penner in the South. These West-Coast Rivers are of great importance as they contain as much as 14 per cent of the Country’s Water Resources while draining only 12 per cent of the land area.

Note : Courtesy Research and Reference Division Ministry of Information  and  Broadcasting, Govt. of India.

RURAL WATER SUPPLY PROGRAMME

India implements  the  Largest  Government  Sponsored  Rural  Water  Supply  Programme in the World. Although supply of drinking water is primarily the responsibility of stage governments, the Union Government supports the programme with fully centrally sponsored Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme (ARWSP).

NDWM

In order to provide further managerial, technical and financial support to the programme, National Drinking Water Mission (NDWM) was launched in 1986. All the programmes were coordinated under the umbrella of NDWM to achieve the goal of International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade (IDWSSD) by providing 100 per cent coverage for rural villages by March 1990.

NDWM had a clear goal of covering residual problem villages (1.62 lakh at the begining of the seventh plan) by 1990. In order to achieve the same, it provided low-cost appropriate technological solution to identify problems associated with supply of safe drinking water through the application of scientific and technological inputs. Nearly 85 per cent of the programme is to provide spot sources  through  Level  Operation  and  Maintenance  (LOM) pump called India mark II is presently being exported to nearly 40 countries World over.

Mini-mission Areas

Some 55 pilot Project called mini-mission areas covering various status and union territories and Five Submission were taken  up  during  the  seventh  plan.  A  problem  village has been defined as one with no source of safe drinking water within a distance of 1.6. or within a depth of 15 metres. One problem villagers face are those where available water has excessive salinity, iron, fluoride or other  toxic  elements  or  where  diseases  like  cholera, guinea worm, etc are endemic.

After covering problem villagers identified in the Sixth and Seventh Plan, water supply facilities were proposed to be extended to villagers as per liberalized norms i.e. within a distance of 0.5 km. and enhancing present norm of water supply from 40 litres to 70 litres per capita per day and provide one source (tubewell with hand-pumps or stand-post) for a population of 150 against the existing norm of 250-300 persons. Priority was being accorded for coverage of SC/ST habitations and water supply for the economically and socially background areas.

States were advised to allocate atleast 25 per cent of  ARWSP  funds  for  the  Schedule Castes and another ten per cent of Schedule Tribes.  At  the  commencement  of  the  seventh plan, 161, 722 problem villages remained to be covered with safe drinking water facilities. The mission had been successful in covering 1,53,390 problem villages in the Seventh Plan. Remaining 8,332 villages which had spilled over to the Eight Plan were to be covered in the first two years of the Eight Plan i.e. by 1992.

Against the Seventh Plan outlay for Central Assistance to States/UTs under ARWSP and Technology Mission Schemes for Rs. 1207 crore, Rs. 1906 crore had actually been released and utilised and Rs. 423 crore had been provided in 1990-91 for ARWSP/Mini- Mission and submission and national drinking water mission and Rs. 6.43 crore under State Sector MNP.

Through NDWM, science and technology inputs had been harnessed in a big wat including Remote-sensing and satellite imagery, geographical, investigations, etc. to effect scientific source finding. Steps were also initiated to investigation of water purification from laboratories to commercial production and then on to field for removing salinity, excess iron and excess fluoride.

Looking at the success of India’s Performance in the rural drinking water supply, for the first time a flobal consulatation national development programme and the Government of India between 10-14 September, 1990 where 125 countries and various multi-lateral and bilateral agencies were represented through 600 delegates. The challenge set up for the next decade is “Some for all, rather than more for some”.

The New Delhi Global Consultation

The New  Delhi  global  consultation  recommended  four  guiding  principles  which  are:

(i) Protection of the environment and safeguarding of health through the integrated management of  water resources  and liquid  and solid  waters.

(ii) Institutional reforms promoting, attitudes and behaviour, and the full participation of women and all levels in sector institutions.

(iii) Community management of services, backed by measures to strengthen local institutions in implementing and sustaining water and sanitation programmes.

(iv) Sound financial practices, achieved through better management  of  existing  assests and widespread use of appropriate technologies.

FLOOD MANAGEMENT

Floods are annual features in one part of the Country or the other causing damage to the crops and property, destruction of communication and at times heavy loss of human-life and livestock.

National Flood Control Programm

After heavy floods in 1954, the Government of India announced a National Flood Management Programme. The programme was divided into these phases immediate, short- term and long-term:

(i) The immediate  phase  was  adopted  for  intensive  collection  of  data  and  execution of emerge flood protection measures.

(ii) The short-term measures for flood protection include construction of Spurs and embankments of select  sites.

(iii) The construction of storages, reservoirs on rivers/tributaries and additional embankments were the main long-term measure adopted. Out of  the  total geographical area of 329 million ha of the country, area prone to floods and area which can be provided reasonable degree of protection as assesses by R.B.A. are 40 million ha. and 32 million ha. respectively.

Even after the implementation of short and long-term measures, providing  a  certain degree of protection against floods to the flood prone areas, the flood loss continued to show increasing trend. More realistic and relational approach for flood management under  the existing resources contains would be to strive for a reasonable degree of protection against floods by structural measures and supplement it by resorting to non-structural measures.

MEASURES AND ACHIEVEMENTS

(1) Since the launching of the National Flood Control Programme, an expenditure of about Rs. 2710 crore have been incurred on the Flood Control Sector till the end of the Seventh Plan. In the Seventh Plan, an Approval Outlay of Rs. 947.39 crore has a share of Rs. 797.43 crore by States and Union Territories and Rs. 149.93 crore by the Centre.

(2) Since 1954 nearly 15,467 km of new embankments, 30,199 km of drainage channels, 765 town-protection works and raising the level of about 4,705 villages have been completed upto March, 1989. These achievements have been executed at an

expenditure of Rs. 2493.56 crore and have benefitted 13.64 million ha. In addition, Anti-sea Erosion Measures to protect coast-line especially in Kerala were taken up. Out of the 320 km of vulnerable coast-line 311 km have been protected upto March, 1990.

(3) Upto 42 km existing sea walls have been strengthened. Rs. three point five crore have been allocated as Central Loan Assistance to Kerala during 1990-91. In Karnataka, 73.3 km of the coast-line, out of 280 km is vulnerable to sea erosion and

12.89 km of coast-line been protected upto March 1990.

(4) A number of reservoir projects had been completed which have helped in mitigating flood-peak in the down-stream reaches. Notable among these are Hirakud Dam on the Sutlej, Pong Dam  on  the  Beas  and  Ukai  Dam  on  the  Tapti.  All  these  works have afforded  a reasonable  degree of  protection.

(5) The Country on  the  whole  experienced  good  and  well-distributed  rains.  Rainfall was normal and well-distributed in 32 out of 35 Metrological Sub-divisions of the Country and 84 per cent  of  the  Districts  recorded  excess  of  normal  rainfall.  The rain was deficient in Andaman and Nicobar Island, Lakshadweep and Kerala meteorological sub-divisions. Heavy rains/flash floods in Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Orissa and Kerala characterized the over-all flood situation. Assam, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal also experienced moderate to high- intensity floods. It is reported that an area of 4.9 million ha, have been affected by floods during 1990 monsoon season and a population of 16.2 million were affected and crops worth Rs. 28.1 crore in an area of about 2.8 million reported to have been damaged. In all, nearly 882 human-lives and  damages  to  the  crops,  houses  and public utilities were reported to be the tune of Rs. 41.25 crore.

Forecasting

Flood Forecasting Activities have been vastly extended  and  expanded  over  the  years since 1959 by covering almost all major inter-state river basins. Currently, the flood forecasting network compromising 157 flood forecasting stations covers 72 river basins. These sites were operational during 1990-flood season. The flood forecasting network is also supported by 500 meteorological stations, which collect and transmit data through 400 wireless stations  to various control  rooms for processing  and issue  forecasting.

During the flood season 1990, the  number  of  Flood  Forecast  issued  having  benefitted the state and UTs was about 3,500. About 95 per cent of these forecasts were  within perimissible range of accuracy. With great thrust being accorded to flood forecasting aspect under the eighth plan period, the number of flood forecasting stations were likely to increase to about 200 by the end of the eight plan period and to about 300 by the end of the century.

Thrust Area During the Eighth Plan Period

The working group on flood management in its report for the eighth plan (1990-95) laid stress on non-structural measures viz. flood forecasting and farning, flood plan zoning, flood froofing and disaster perparedness. Substantially, increased outlays for these  activities  had been recommended by the working group which are as follows:

(a) Flood forecasting  Rs.  44.30  crore,

(b) Flood plan Zoning Rs. 32 crore and

(c) Flood proofing Rs. 440 crore.

The following projections have been considered in the flood management sector:

(i) The Government of India reaches a memorandum of understanding with the Nepalese-Government in March 1988. Under the agreement it was proposed to set- up 45 hydrological and hydrometerological stations in Nepal for issuing flood forecasts for Nepal and India. The joint reconnaissance teams identified 15 of these sites and the required equipment for these stations were procured and transferred to the Nepalese Government. Reconnaissance survey for seven more stations was also done during May 1990.

(ii) The work of extension of flood forecasting network in the Brahmanputra  and  the Barak River Basins was given priority and include in the Action Plan of the Ministry of Water Resources Survey for seven more stations  would  be  operational  during 1991 flood season.

(iii) Real time data acquisition and In flow forecasting system using latest metero burust communication system for Krishna, Mahanadi and Chambal basin under the Dam Safety and Rehabilitation Programme was prepared and discussed with the World Bank.

(iv) Under a French Collaboration Progrmme, the River Baitarni was also proposed to be modernised for data acquisition as well as forecasting in the country.

Ganga Flood Control Commission

Ganga Flood Control Commission, Patna, established in April 1972, is primarily concerned with the preparation of a comprehensive plan for flood control in the Ganga basin and arranging its implementation in coordinated manner through the states in the basin. The commission, Anti-Water-Logging-Erosion and Anti-Erosion Schemes estimated to cost Rs. lakh each or more in the Basin

Note: Courtesy Research and Reference Division Ministry  of  Information  and  Broadcasting Govt. of India

DROUGHT PRONE AREAS PROGRAMME

The Drought-Prone Areas Programme was initiated as an Integrated Area Development Programme in 1973. The programme was conceived as a long-term measure for restoration of ecological balance and optimum utilisation of land, water, livestock and human resources to mitigate the effects of ‘The drought in and ‘The drought prone areas’. The programme has three basic objectives:

(i) To conserve, develop and harness land and other natural resources including rainfall with a view to improving and restoring ecological balance,

(ii) To minimise adverse effects of drought on crops and livestock production through integrated development of land, water resources, and adoption of appropriate technology,

(iii) To ultimately achieve drought proofing of the project area through integrating and dovetailing activities under this programme with State Sectoral Plans and Special Programmes. The programme is  under  implementation  in  615  block  of  91  district in thirteen states. Present coverage of the programme is based on the recommendations of the ‘Task Force on DPAP and DDP (1982)’ as modified by the Inter Departmental Group (1984).  Total  area  covered  under  the  programme  is about 5.54 lakh sq. km and the total population in the areas covered  by  the programme is about 775 lakh. The funds for the programme  are  shared  by  the Central Government and the states  concerned  on  a  50:50  basis.  An  Outlay  of Rs. 237 crore was provided for the programme in the Central Plan for the Seventh Plan Period.

Desert Development Programme

The objectives of this programme include controlling the process of desertification mitigate the effects of drought in desert areas, restoration of ecological balance in affected areas and raising productivity of land, water, livestock and human resources in these areas.

The objectives are sought to be achieved through activities such as a forestation  with special emphasis on sand dune stablisation, shelterbelt plantation and grassland development, soil and moisture conservation and  water  resources  development.  The  programme  covers 131 blocks of 21 districts in five states. It also covers cold areas of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. The area covered under  this  programme  is  about  3.62-lakh  sq.  km  and the population area covered is about 150 lakh. This programme is implemented with 100 percent Central Financial  Assistance.  In  1989-90,  allocations  were  made  at  the  rate  of  Rs. 24 lakhs per 1000 sq. km., the ceiling per district hence will be Rs. 500 lakh. For cold desert areas, a lumpsum provision is made, the rate being Rs. 100 lakh per district per year for Himachal Pradesh and Rs. 150 lakh district per year for Jammu and Kashmir.

Since its inception, Rs. 291.33 crore has been spent under the programme. During the Seventh Plan Period, Rs. 194.04 crore has been spent under the programme.

Table 2.6 Depiction of the Physical Achievements Made Under  The  Programme Upto March 1990 Physical achievements

(i) Area treated  under  soil  and  moisture  conservation 91.28

(ii)  Area  treated  under  water  resources  development 34.90

(iii) Area  covered  under  afforestation  and  pasture  development 179.18

INTER-STATE WATER DISPUTES

The water wealth of India is enormous. The National Water Policy of 1987 recognizes River Basin as a unit for the purpose of harnessing the water potential.

Reasons for Differences

Major River Basin of  the  Country  are  all  almost  Inter-state.  With  so  many  rivers flowing through more than one  state,  it  is  a  natural  phenomenon  that  differences  would arise sometime or other amongst concerned states with regard to use and distribution of

control of water of such rivers. This is especially so in view of the  rapid  pace  of  water resources development to meet the increasing demand for irrigation, Hydel-Power Generation, domestic and  industrial  water supply  etc.

Effort to Resolve Disputes

Efforts are made, as far as possible, to resolve all disputes by negotiations amongst states concerned or with the assistance of the Centre. Adjudication through Tribunal is resorted to when warranted. Several of Inter-State Water Dispute have been resolved in the recent past.

1. Some of these are agreements regarding construction of Thein Dam (Ravi), Barakar, Ajoy, Mayurakshi, Mahanada, Subernrekha and Kanhar Rivers, some common rivers between Madhya Pradesh and Orissa and some between Maharastra and Madhya Pradesh.

2. Sharing of river waters of the Krishna, the Godavari and Narmada by concerned Basin States has been settled through respective Tribunals set-up by the Government under the Inter-State Water Dispute Act, 1956.

3. The Ravi and Beas Waters Tribunal, which was set-up on second April 1986, submitted its report to the Central Government on 30 January 1987.

4. In August, 1987 a further reference was made to  the  Tribunal  comprising  a  Suo- moto Reference by the Central Government and reference received from Punjab, Harayana and Rajasthan Government’s seeking explanation/guidance  on  certain points in the report.

5. Two major inter-state river dispute have not yet been resolved. They relate to utilisation of the waters of the Kaveri and the Yamuna.

6. The Kaveri Water Dispute had to be referred to a tribunal are still continuing. Keeping in view the response of the party states concerned, it should be possible to find solution to the Yamuna Water Dispute without recourse to a tribunal.

BARDS AND COMMITTEES

Necessary Boards and Committees are formed to resolve the disputes, if any arise among the states on the water distribution and allied issues. Some are as under:

(1) Bansagar Control Baord

In pursuance of an inter-state agreement among Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, the Bansagar Control Board was constituted in January, 1976 with headquarters at Rewa, Madhya Pradesh, by the Ministry of Water Resources for efficient, economical and early execution of Bansagar Dam and connected works on the Sone River (excluding Canal and Power Systems which will be carried-out by the respective states).

(2) Sardar Sarovar Construction Advisory Committee

The Sardar Sarovar Construction Advisory Committee, Vadodara in Gujrat, was set-up in accordance with the direction of the Narmada Water Disputes Tribunal for scrutinising estimates, technical features, designs of Units I and III (Dam and Power  Portion)  and Annual Works Programmes of the Project in Gujrat, which is an Inter-State Project benefiting Gujrat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Rajasthan. The Dam and Power House Complex

was completed by 1998. The project was expected to irrigation about 18  lakh  hectares  in Gujrat and provide 1450 mw Hydro-Power for peaking.

(3) Statutory Bodies

Four Statutory Bodies are functioning under the Ministry of Water Resources. These are: Narmada Control Authority, Brahamputra Board, Betwa River Board and the Tungabhadra Board. A brief description of these bodies is as under:

(a) Narmada Control Authority

The Narmada Control Authority was set-up in pursuance of the decision of the Narmada Water Disputes Tribunal. It started functioning from December, 1980 and was further strengthened during 1987 and 1990. The authority coordinates and directs Narmada Basin Development Project and takes such measures as are necessary or expedient for protection of environment and also prepares Schemes for the Welfare and Rehabilitation of Oustees and Other Affected Persons.

(b) Brahmaputra Board

The  Government  constituted  the  Brahmaputra  Board  under  the  Brahmaputra  Act, 1980, with the specific object of preparing a ‘Master Plan’ for the control of Flood and Bank Erosion and Improvement of Drainage of the Brahmaputra Valley. Jurisdiction of the Board includes the Barak Valley.

(c) Betwa River Board

The Rajghat Dam Project on the Betwa, a Tributary of the Yamuna, is an Inter-State Project of Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. In accordance with the inter-state agreement between the two states in 1973, Betwa River Board was constituted under the Betwa River Board Act, 1976 for early executions of Rajghat Dam Project.

(d) Tungabhadra Board

The Tungabhadra Board is incharge of the common portions of the Tungabhadra Project. The Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal had made specific provision in the award for the use of Tungabhadra Waters by Karnataka  and  Andhra  Pradesh.  The  responsibility  for  carrying out this specific provision relating  to  the  use  of  Tungbhadra  Water  has  been  entrusted  to the Tungabhadra Board by the Tribunal. The board is also regulating the water for irrigation, Hydro-Power Generation and other uses of the Right Bank.

IRRIGATION AGREEMENTS

(1) Indus Water Treaty

India and Pakistan signed the Indus Water Treaty on 19 September, 1960, fixing and delimiting the rights and obligations of the Two Countries with regards to the use of the waters of the Indus River System. It came into force from first April, 1960. A Permanent Indus Commission representing both the Governments have established co-operation arrangements for implementation of the treaty.

(2) Indo-Bangladesh Joint Rivers Commission

The Indo-Bangladesh Joint Rivers Commission was set-up in July, 1972 to perform the following functions:

(i) To maintain liason between the Participating Countries in order to ensure the most effective joint efforts in maximizing the benefits from Common River System to both Countries:

(ii) To formulate  flood  forecasting  and  cyclone  warnings;

(iii) To study flood control works and so recommended implementation of Joint projects;

(iv) To formulate detailed proposal on advance flood warnings, flood control and Irrigation Project so that the water resources of the region can be utilized on an equipment basis for the mutual benefit of the people of the two countries;

(v) To formulate proposal for countries to co-ordinate research on problems of flood control affecting both the countries.

Indo-Nepal Sub-Commission on Water Resources

The Indo-Nepal, sub-commission on water resources was set-up in August 1988, to deal with all aspects of Indo-Nepal Cooperation in  the  multiple  uses  of  Water  Resources  for mutual benefit. In additional to the matter already under discussion  at  secretary-level  and other meetings, the sub-commission shall identify new programes/Project for water resources development for cooperation between India and Nepal in specific sectors viz. irrigation, water-logging and drainage,  hydro-electric  power  generation.  Inland  navigation,  collection of hydrological data, measures to prevent and reduce losses due to floods, flood forecasting and flood warning,  environment  safeguard  measures  and  transfer  of  technology  suited  to the requirement of both the countries.

DAMS: DESCRIPTION, BENEFITS AND PROBLEMS

A number of big, medium and minor dams have been envisaged under different river valley projects. These dams have been undertaken for irrigation, power generation and water supply. These dams, hailed as the Temples of Modern India by the country’s first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, have increased agricultural production, power generation and reduced dependence on imports. A brief description of the dams and benefit accruing form them is as under:

Farakka Barrage Project

The Farkka Barrage Project is designed to subserve the need for preservation and maintenance of the Calcutta Port by improving the regime and navigability of the Bhagirathi- Hooghly River System. The Bhagirathi, the feeder canal and the navigation lock at the Farakka Barrage form part of the Haldi-Allahabad Inland Waterway for which an act has been passed.

The principles components of the Farakka Barrage Project are:

(a) 2,240 metre-long barrage across the Ganga, designed to pass a flood discharge of 76,455 cumec or 27 lakh, with rail-cum-road bridge, the necessary river  draining works and a head regulator on the right side;

(b) 213 metre-long garrage across the Bhragirathi at Jangipur, designed to pass flood discharge of 1,700 cusecs or 60,000 cusecs;

(c) Feeder canal of 1,133 cusecs or 40,000 cusecs carrying capacity and 38.38 km-long taking off from the head regulator on the right-side of the Faraka Barrage, tailing- off into the Bhagirathi below Jangipur Barrage;

(d) Navigation works such as locks, channels, shelter navigation lights and other infrastructures.

VARIOUS DAMS IN THE COUNTRY AND BENEFITS THEREFROM

(1) Damodar River Valley Project

Damodar River Valley Project serves several objectives. This huge dam is, in fact, a series of small dams built on a river and its tributaries, serves as man-made lake that is now able to impound huge amount of rain water. In this way, it helps in flood control and soil protection. This water is used for irrigation during dry periods. Since catchments areas of dam are afforested, there is available additional wild land that helps to preserve ecosytems.

The water stored here is used for power generation i.e. hydle power or hydro-electricity. These projects also provide for inland water navigation,  cheapest  means  of  transport  for heavy goods. They are  also used to develop  fish hatcheries and nurseries.

Damodar Valley Project consists of series of small dams of the tributaries of Damodar, flowing from Chotanagpur in South Bihar to West Bengal. The hydle power has been integrated in a common grid.

(2) Bhakra Nangal Project

This project has been built where two hills on either side of Satluj are very close to each other. It claims to be highest gravity dam in the world (height 226 metres from river bed). The project serves the states of Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Harayana, Rajasthan and U.T. of Delhi.

(3) Indira Gandhi Rajasthan Canal Project

It is ambitious plan to bring new areas under irrigation. The water of the Beas and Ravi has to be diverted to Satluj. The Pong Dam on the Beas impounds 6,90,000 ha metres water. This dam helped in the division of Beas into Satluj in a regulated manner. It enabled Rajasthan canal to irrigation Ganganagar, Bikaner and Jaiselmer Districts. The main canal is 468 km long.

(4) Kosi Project

Kosi Project or river Kosi in North Bihar has a main canal to irrigate 8,73,000 ha of land in Bihar.

(5) Hirakud Dam

Hirakud Dam in Orissa is longest serves Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. This 2.5 km long dam irrigates nearly 4,00,000 ha land.

(6) The Tungbhadra

The Tungbhadra Project serves Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. This 2.5 km long dam irrigates nearly 4,00,000 ha land.

(7) The Nagarjunasagar

The Nagarjunsagar Project is built on river Krishna in Andhra Pradesh. It irrigates 8,67,00 ha land.

(8) The Chambal Project

The Chambal irrigation parts of M.P. and Rajasthan. There are many other such projects on different rivers in the country.

ENVIRONMENT PROBLEMS CREATED BY DAMS

We can study the environmental side effects of river valley and hydle-power projects in three categories as  under:

(i) Effect within  and  around  the  area  covered  by  the  dam  and  reservoir.

(ii) Downstream effects consequent to the alternation in hydraulic regime,

(iii) Regional effects in terms of overall aspects including resources use and socio- economic aspects.

The Evil Impacts

The impacts  caused  by  construction  of  dams  and  reservoirs  include  the  following:

(i) Changes in the microclimate,

(ii) Loss of  vegetal  cover,

(iii) Soil erosion,

(iv) Variation in water level,

(v) Enhanced seismic  activities  due  to  pressure  of  water.

(1) Effects of Blasting

In hilly tracts, blasting operations for road construction can cause considerable damage to the environment through the following reactions:

(a) Loosening of hill sides and resultant landslides,

(b) Sedimentation of  reservoirs,

(c) Drying up of spring and flash floods.

(2) The creation of new settlement for the workmen and rehabilitation of project oustees in the watershed areas may aggravate the seriousness of advance impact.

The Guidelines

The guidelines refer to the environmental components to be taken in view during site selection. These include the following points:

(i) Short and long-term impact on population in the unidentified and watershed areas;

(ii) Impact on  wildlife,

(iii) Impact on land use,

(iv) Potential seismic  impact  of  reservoir  loading,

(v) Water balance and hydrological regime,

(vi) Siltation,

(vii) Socio-economic impact such as rehabilitation of project oustees and been suggested in the guideline.

The costs for environment protection and mitigative measures should also be included in the overall estimates. These should include measures like:

(i) Compensatory afforestation

(ii) Restoration of land in construction areas,

(iii) Control of  aquatic  weed,

(iv) Control of  water  and  soil  diseases,

(v) Rehabilitation of  project  oustees.

SOME SAFE GUARDS

From the above it becomes clear that it is essential to guarantee mitigative and environmental safeguard before clearance  of  a  project.  The  safeguard  for  the  following  are to be guaranteed:

(i) Submergence of  valuable  agricultural  and  forest  areas,

(ii) Siltation of  reservoirs  consequent  to  degraded  catchment  conditions,

(iii) Satisfactory rehabilitation of those inhabitants who are ousted,

(iv) Loss of flora and fauna,

(v) Reservoir induced  seismicity,

(vi) Water borne and soil borne diseases.

Opposition of Dams

The above-mentioned problems created by the dams have led to the opposition in various corners of the country. The experts hold it from time to time that the social, environmental and even economic cost of these dams, however, far outweighs their benefits. The most important social consequence of big dams has been displacement of millions of tribals from their homeland and their eventual influx into urban areas, almost as refugees. This is the reason why Scientists, environmentalists, journalists, social activities, lawyers and bureaucrats have taken up the cry against big dams.

Reaction

The ever-increasing opposition from scientists and environmentalists has forced the Govt. of review a number of proposed dams in the light of their impact on local tribals flora and fauna. Results are also seen. The Govt. had to scrap the Silent Valley Project in Kerala. Likewise, Koel and Karo Project in Bihar was also abandoned due to opposition from local people as it would have displaced several thousands for Santhal tribals in the area.

The following  four  major  projects  have  generated  much  controversy:

(i) Sardar Sarovar  Project,  Gujarat.

(ii) Narmada Sagar Project, M.P.

(iii) Bodhaghat Project, M.P.

(iv) Tehri Dam Project in U.P.

Though these have been given  environment  clearance,  pressure  is  being  exercised  on the Govt. to drop these projects. A reader of newpapers could go through the headlines as “Losses exceed Tehri Dam benefits,” “Govt. forced to rivew dam projects”. “Big dams  spell doom”, “How green was my valley”,  “The  displacement  factor”  etc.  A  brief  description  of these dams is as under:

(1) Sardar Sarovar (SS)

Project near Navagam in Bharuch district of Gujarat is one of the costliest projects project affecting village in three states- M.P. Maharashtra and Gujarat. It is estimated that nearly 245 villagers will be submerged, of which about 193 in M.P. alone. As such, over 75,000 (nearly 50,000 in M.P. alone) people will be evicted.

Besides, additional displacement is likely to be caused during social and environmental rehabilitation work undertaken to repair the dislocation and damages caused by the project. Likewise, compensatory afforestation and setting of wildlife sanctuary will displace other villagers in the area. It  is  officially  admitted  that  nearly  43,000  ha  of  land  will  be  needed for rehabilitation of SS outees.

(2) Narmada Valley Project (NVP)

It claims to be the world’s largest river valley project. The 30 big dams and over 3,000 medium dams are envisaged. It is estimated that it would displace over one million people, mostly tribals, submerge 56,000 ha of fertile agriculture land. Total forest are of nearly 60,000 ha will be destroyed. As a result, nearly 25 species of birds will be deprived of their habitats.

(3) Bodhghat Project

Bodhaghat Project on Indaravati river in M.P. is in Bastar district. It is feared that the project will destroy teak and sal forests, and spell doom for the last surviving wild buffaloes. The criticism of the project was so high and widespread that it forced the Govt. and the World Bank to reconsider it.

(4) Tehri Dam

Tehri Dam is on the Bhagirathi river in U.P. at the foothhills aof Himalayas; it is Soviet-financed and challenged in the Supreme Court. It is feared that it will displace over 85,000 people. It will totally immerse the Tehri town and completely or partly submerge nearly 100 villages. The site is prone to intense seismic activity. It is also held the 3,200 million ton of water that the Dam would impound could cause a major earth tremor. In case a disaster takes place the entire religious townships of Deoprayag, Hardwar and Rishikesh would be devastated. Thousand of hectares of rich, agricultural land will be drowned. The fear is not imaginary. In July/August 2004 the midable position took place.

DAM SAFETY ORGANIZATION (DSO)

There are about 1600 large dams in the country of which over 100 Dams are 30 metres in height and above. While these dams provide much needed water for irrigation and development of power,  they also  pose the  potential hazard  in the  event of  failure.

Realising the importance of hazards posed by the dams, the Government India constituted the Dams Safety Organization. New Delhi, in CWC in 1979. The organization assists the state governments to locate causes of potential distress and redress the affecting Safety of Dams and Allied Structures. It also advised and guides the state government in providing suitable remedial measures.

The organization has created awareness about the implications of Dam Hazard and the consequence of failure thereof. The organization devised guidelines and literature on dam safety inspections and modes and causes of failure to highlight the importance of monitoring the Safety Aspects of Dams. This organization is the Secretarial of the Nations Committee of Dam Safety created to follow-up the implementation of the recommendation of the ‘Report on Dam Safety Organization’. It is also pursuing creation of Dam Safety Cells in various states and, in this connection, 12 States have so far set-up ‘Dam Safety Cells’ in their States.

MINERAL RESOURCE: USE AND EXPLOITATION ON THE ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECT OF THEIR EXTRACTION

Significance

The economic development of a country depends, to a great extent. On the availability of minerals, got as ores from the earth by mining Coal and iron are the basic minerals which man needs to develop iron and steel industry. Minerals like mica, copper, lead and zinc are of vast economic importance. Thorium and uranium are atomic energy minerals.

Position of Minerals in India

India is rich endowed with minerals like coal, bauxite, barytes, iron, one mica, gypsum, chromite, dolomite and limestone while it is deficient in minerals like asbestos, phosphates, lead, tungsten, tin platinum group of metals, gold and diamonds.

Need for an Appropriate Policy

An appropriate policy regarding extraction of minerals is needed in view of the limited availability and nature of minerals as under:

(1) Mineral resources are finite and non-renewable.

(2) Mineral resources  constitute  raw  materials  for  many  basic  industries.

(3) Mineral resources  are  major  resources  of  nations  development.

National Mineral Policy

In view of the above Nations Mineral Policy has been adopted which encompasses the various Policy Guidelines, which have been issued from time to time. The  policy  also emphasizes certain new aspects and elements as under:

(1) Mineral Exploration in the seabed,

(2) Development of  proper  inventory,

(3) Proper linkage between exploitation of minerals and  development  of  mineral industry,

(4) Preference to members of the scheduled tribes for development of small deposits in scheduled areasm

(5) Protection of forests, environment and ecology from the adverse effects of mining,

(6) Enforcement of  mining  plan  for  adoption  of  proper  mining  methods.

(7) Optimum utilizations of minerals, export of minerals in value added form and recycling of metallic scrap and mineral waste.

Under the constitution, mineral rights and administration of Mining Laws are vested in State Governments. The Central Government, however, regulated development of minerals under the Mines and Minerals (Regulation and Development) Act, 1957 and the rules and regulations framed under it. The statute empowers the Centre to formulate rules for the following:

(i) The grant  of  prospective  licences  and  mining  leases;

(ii) The conservation  and  development  of  minerals;

(iii) The modification  of  old  leases.

The Mines and Minerals  (Regulation  and  Development)  Act,  1957,  was  amended  in 1972 and major amendments were made in February 1987. The Mineral Concession Rules, 1960, 1958 was replaced by more comprehensive rules in 1988.

MINERALS RESOURCES

Principle minerals found in the country, along with their estimated reserves, are given below:

(1) Bauxite

Recoverable reserves of all grades of bauxite in the country are estimated at 283.3 crore tonnes. Important deposits occur in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Goa, Gujrat, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh.

(2) Barytes

The recoverable reserves of barytes are placed at 7.1 crore tonnes. Most of the reserves are located at Mangampet Taluka in Cuddapah District, Andhra Pradesh. Other minor occurrences are reported from Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Himachal Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.

(3) Coal and Lignite

Coal is India’s largest mineral resource and presently India is fifth largest of coal in the world. Vast deposits of coal of Gondwana formations occur in West Bengal, Orissa, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. It also occurs in tertiary formations in Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Jammu and Kashmir and Nagaland. Total reserves of coal are estimated at 17,046 crore tonnes comprosing 16,499 crore tonnes of non-coking coal and 547 crore tonnes of prime cocking. As compare with India’s coal reserves lignite resources are relatively modest at 438.8 crore tonnes of which the bulk of the reserves are located in and around Neyyeli in Tamil Nadu. Significant lignite resources are in Rajasthan, Gujrat and Jammu and Kashmir.

(4) Chromite

Total recoverable reserves of Chromite, are estimated at 5.4. crore tonnes. Deposits of economic significance occur in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharastra, Manipur, Orissa and Tamil Nadu. However, refractory grade reserves of chromite are very meagre.

(5) Copper

Major and important copper ore producing areas are in Singhbhum District (Bihar), Balaghat District (Madhya Pradesh) and Jhunjhunu and Alwar District (Rajasthan). In addition, small production of copper ore comes from Khammam District (Andhra Pradesh), Chitradung and Hassan Districts (Karnataka), and Sikkim. Copper ore reserves in the Country are estimated at 63.2 crore tonnes with a metal content of about 82.8 lakh tonnes.

(6) Diamond

Total reserves and resources in the country are placed at 10.8 carats. main diamond bearing area in India is Panna belt in Madhaya Pradesh, Ramallakota and Bangampalle Chitradung rocks in Kurnool Districts and gravels of Krishan River Basin in Andhra Pradesh. Presently, the only Diamond Pipe under exploitation is at Panna.

(7) Dolomite

Total recoverable reserves of dolomite of all grades are placed at 46.08 lakh tonnes. Principal producing states for dolomite are Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Gujrat,  Bihar,  Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal.

(8) Gold

There are three important gold fields in the country, namely, Kolar Field in Kolar District and Hutti Gold Field in Raichur District (both in Karnataka) and Ramagiri Gold Field in Anantapur district (Andhra Pradesh). Total in-situ gold ore reserves and resources are estimated at five crore tonnes with a total Gold content of 103.17 tonnes. However, Kolar Gold Field Mines an Hutti account for bulk of Gold Ore Reserves, equivalent to about 57.6 tonnes in in-situ Gold.

(9) Fireclay

India has vast resources of fireclay with recoverable reserves of 70.3 tonnes. Fireclay occurs in India mainly, associated with Coal Beds of Godwana and Tertialryt Basins. Major fireclay producing states are Bihar, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh.

(10) Fluorspar

Fluorspar mainly occurs in Gujrat, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan with total recoverable reserves estimated at 18.8 lakh tonnes.

(11) Gypsum

Total reserves and resources of gypsum in the country are estimated at 120 crore tonnes, of which recoverable reserves are 31.9 crore tonnes. Bulk of domestic production mineral gypsum  comes  from  Rajasthan  and  Tamil  Nadu,  Jammu  and  Kashmir,  Himachal  Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. Gujrat also produces small quantities.

(12) Graphite

Recoverable reserves of graphite are estimated at 46.5 lakh tonnes of  which  31  lakh tonnes  occur  in  Kerala  and  Bihar  and  the  rest  in  Orissa,  Rajasthan,  Tamil  Nadu  and Andhra Pradesh.

(13) Limonite

Total reserves in limonite at 14.6 crore mainly in beach sands on Eastern and Western Coasts and Tamil Nadu are important.

(14) Iron Ore

India is favourable endowed with iron ore deposits recoverable reserves are estimated at 1197.7 crore tonnes of which 10, 267 tonnes are haematite and 171 crore tonnes magnitute Ore. Haematite mainly occurs in Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Goa, and Karnataka. Large reserves of magnetite ore occur along West Coast, primarily in Karnataka with minor occurrences in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.

(15) Kaolin

India possesses vast resources of kaolin and ball clay with kaolin Resources being placed at 87.2 crore tonnes. Currently, principal producing states for Kaolin are Bihar, Gujrat, Rajasthan and West Bengal, Kerala, Haryana, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh also produce significant quantities. Ball Clay Kerala is chiefly produced in Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat.

(16) Lead-Zinc

Lead-zinc ore occur in Rajasthan, Meghalaya, Gujrat, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Orissa and Sikkim. However, 95 per cent of the known resources are localised in south-central Rajasthan and the adjoining part of Gujrat. Total identified ore resources are placed at 38.3 crore tonnes equivalent to an in-situ mental content of 56 lakh tonnes of lead and 1.83 crore tonnes of zinc.

(17) Limestone

Limestine occurs extensively in the country and is produced in almost all states. Major Producing states are Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Gujrat, Bihar, Orissa, Rajasthan and Karnataka. Total recoverable reserves of Limestone of all grades are estimated Manganese Ore at 6935.4 crore tonnes.

(18) Manganese

Recoverable reserves of manganese ore are estimated at 15.4 crore tonnes. Rich deposists of Manganese Ore occur in Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Gujrat, Karanataka, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa. Major producers are Orissa, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.

(19) Mica

India is world’s leading producer of sheet mica and accounts for about 60 per cent of global mica trade. Economic deposits of mica occur in three richest mica belts, accounts for almost 60 per cent of India’s output in terms of value. Though large mica resources are

existing, estimates have not far been made because of irregular nature of pegmatites as well as erratic nature of mica mineralisation in pegmatites.

(20) Nickel

Low grade latorited nickel occurs in Cuttack, Keonjhar and Mayurbhani Districts of Orissa. Main occurrence is in Sukinda Belt to Cuttack District. Minor occurrences are also reported from Bihar, Manipur, Nagaland, Maharasthra, Karnataka and Rajasthan. Total nickel ore resources are estimated at 23.1 crore tonnes.

(21) Phosphate Minerals

Deposists of Phosphorites are located in Chhatarpur, Sagar  and  Jhabua  Districts  of Madhya Pradesh, Udaipur, Jaisalmer and Banswara districts  of  Rajasthan  and  Dehradun and Tehri and Lalitpur District of Uttar Pradesh. Besides, apatite deposits of commerical importance are reported to occur in Bihar,  Andhra  Pradesh,  Rajasthan,  West  Bengal  and Tamil Nadu. Total recoverable reserves  of  Rock  Phosphate  are  estimated  at  11.5  crore tonnes and of apatite at 20 lakh tonnes.

(22) Tungsten

Recoverable reserves of tungsten ore are placed at 70 lakh tonnes with W 03 contents of 7,860 tonnes.  Tungsten  ore  occurs  in  Rajasthan,  Maharashtra,  Karnataka,  West  Bengal and Uttar Pradesh. The only producing mine in the country is at Degana in Rajasthan.

(23) Magnesite

India is having large resources of magnesite, which is an important refractory mineral. Total recoverable reserves of magnesite are estimated at 22.2 crore tonnes. Presently, chief sources of magnesite are in the District of Salem in Tamil Nadu and Almora in  Uttar Pradesh. Deposits of magnesite also occur in Chamili and Pithoragarh District of Uttar Pradesh, Mysore and Hassan District of Karnataka and in Jammu and Kashmir and Kerala.

(24) Kyanite and Sillimanite

Kyanitye and sillimanite are other important refractory minerals. Principal sources of supply of kyanite are Singhbhum deposit of Bihar and Bhandara deposit of Maharashtra. A small quantity is also produced form Karnataka and Rajasthan. Total recoverable reverses of Sillimanite are placed at 54.3 lakh tonnes.

(25) Other Minerals

Other minerals occuring in significant quantities in India are as under:

(i) Bentonite (Gujrat,  Rajasthan, Bihar,  Jammu and  Kashmir and  Tamil Nadu),

(ii) Corundum (Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh),

(iii) Calcite (Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Gujrat),

(iv) Fuller’s Earth (Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh),

(v) Felspar (Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Madhya Pradesh),

(vi) Garnet (Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh),

(vii) Steatite (Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Bihar),

(i) Wollastonite (Rajasthan and Gujrat), Zicro (Beach Sands of Tamil Nadu Kerala and Orissa),

(ii) Quartz and  other  Silica  Minerals  are  wide-spread  and  occur  in  almost  all  states.

(iii) The country has vast resources of building, dimension and ornamental stones such as granite, marble and slate.

While Granite is chiefly mined in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan, Marble is extensively mined in Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Gujrat. Principally Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Harayana produce slate.

MINERAL AND METAL PRODUCTION

Production of important minerals during 1997-98 to 2001-2002 (provisional is shown in following table):

Note: Courtesy Research and Reference Division Ministry of Information  and  Broadcasting Govt. of India.

M. Tonnes–Million tonnes, ’000–Tonnes-Thousand tonnes, M.C.M.–Million Cubic Metre, Kg.–Kilogram

* The figure excludes the production of fireclay, if any recovered incidental to coal mining.

(R) ‘R’ shows previous years figures repeated as current data have not been received yet.

(1) Data based on the return received under MCDR, 1998 except coal, lignite petroleum (Crude),natural gas (utilised) and minor minerals:

(a) Coal and  Lignite:  Coal  Controller,  Kolkata

(b) Petroleum (Crude) and Natural Gas: Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas, New Delhi.

(c) Minor Minerals:  State Governments.

Environment Problem Created by Extracting and Mining

The environment side effect of extracting and mining projects can be studied in three categories as under:

(i) Effect within  and  around  the  area  covered  by  the  dam  and  reservoir.

(ii) Underground effects  caused  by  emptying  of  area.

(iii) Regional effects in terms of overall aspects inclusive of resources use and socio- economic aspects.

(iv) It has also been participating in India Expeditions to Antarctica right from the very first expedition.

GSI with its headquarters at Calcutta functions six regions, three specialised wings and a training institute. Each year GSI takes up about 1100 investigations in geological mapping, mineral assessment, geotechnical and environment studies, air borne geo-physical surveys as well as geological and geophysical surveys in bordering seas. Output of these efforts is in the form of scientific and technical reports, professional papers, maps and inventories and

various types of publications such as memoirs, records, bulletins, Indian minerals and Palentologica Indica.

(1) Indian Bureau of Mines

Indian Bureau of Mines (IBM) is a multi-disciplinary scientific and technical department.

Function

(1) It is primarily responsible for the conservations and scientific development of mineral resources other than coal, petroleum, natural gas, atomic minerals  and  minor minerals.

(2) It scrutinises mining laws  before  granting  approval,  undertakes  inspection  and study of mines and research  on  beneficiation  of  low-grade  ores  and  minerals  and on special  mining problem.

(3) It provides technical consultancy service to the mining industry for survey and geological appraisal of mineral resources and preparation of feasibility reports on mining projects including beneficiation plants.

(4) It advises Central and state governments on all aspects of mineral industry, trade and Legislation. IBM has its headquaters at Nagpur with 12 regional offices and three well-equiped ore dressing laboratories and pilot plants.

(5) IBM function as a ‘data bank’ for mines and minerals and bulletins on different connected subjects. Important publications are: Indian Minerals Year Book (Annual), Bulletin of Mineral Information (Quarterly), Mineral Statistics of India (Half-yearly), Monthly Statistical of Mineral Production, Foreign Trade in Mineral and Metals (Annual) and Indian Mineral Industry at a Glance (Annual).

1. Public Sector Mining Undertaking

The Department of Mines has administrative responsibility for following undertakings:

(1) Hindustan Zinc Limited (HZL)—Zinc and Lead

(2) Hindustan Copper Limited (HCL)—Copper

(3) Bharat Gold Mines Limited (BGML)—Gold

(4) Bharat Aluminium Co. Ltd. (BALCO)—Aluminium

(5) National Aluminimum  Co.  Ltd.,  (NALCO)—Alminimum

(6) Mineral Exploration Cooperation Ltd. (MECL)—Exploration

(7) Sikkim Mining Corporation—Copper, Zinc and Lead.

2. Hindustan Zinc Limited

Hindustan Zinc Limited (HZL) was incorporated in January 1966 with the following purposes:

(1) To take  over  operation  of  the  erswhile  Metal  Corporation  of  India.

(2) To develop  mining  and  smelting  capacities  for  zinc  and  lead.

Beginning with 500 tonnes per day at Mochia in Rajasthan and 3,600 tonnes per year

lead smelter at Tundoo in Bihar, HZL has  now  seven  operating  mines  with  a  capacity  of 8,740 tonnes of Ore per day, Two Zinc Smelters with a capacity, of 30,000 tonnes per year.

In addition to production of primary metals—zinc and lead, the company produces a number of by-products such as cadmium, silver, sulphuric  acid,  phosphoric  acid,  fertilisers, zinc sulphate  and copper  sulphate.

Based on lead-zinc deposits of Rampura-Agucha in Bhillwara District, a new open pit mine at Rampura-Agucha and a new smelter at Chanderiya in Chittogarh District is under construction. Total cost of the project is estimated at Rs. 684 crore. The smelte will have a capacity of 70,000 tonnes zinc and 35,000 tonnes Lead per annum. It will be operational during 1991-92.

3. Hindustan Copper Limited

Hindustan Copper Limited (HCL) is 54,000 tonnes of Copper in concentrate products viz., Gold, Silver, Nickel, Selenium, tellurium etc. With a view to increase expansion of Malanjkhand Copper Project. It has set up a continuous cast copper wire rod plant at Taloja with an installed capacity of 60,000 tonnes per annum.

4. Bharat Gold Mines Limited

Bharat Gold Mines Limited (BGML)  operates  Kolar  Gold  Mines  where  gold  mining started in 1880 under M/s. John Taylors Sons, a company incorporated in England. This company continued operating these mines till 1956 when key were taken over  by  the Karnataka.

BGML was incorprated in 1972 to take over and operate these mines. There are three working mines viz.,

(i) Mysore Mine

(ii) Nundi Drug Mine

(iii) Chamption Reef Mine

Besides this, BGML is also exploiting Yeppamana Mine Project in Andhra Pradesh. Mining is created out in Kolar Gold Fields under extremely difficult conditions. Mining has reached a depth of over 3,200 metres at Kolar Gold Fields involving problems of heat and ground control.

Due to depth of mining and depletion of Gold Reserves, mining operations of BGML are uneconomic. Exploration for development of new shallow mines is being actively pursued. Further, taking advantage of skilled manpower,  technical  expertise  and  available infrastructure and diversification plants have been prepared to cover areas  of  mine construction and manufacture of mining machinery.

Project and Contracts division of BGML was established in 1973 for mine construction work and has already executed a large number of shaft sinking and mine development jobs. It has ambitious programmes in this field to meet the requirement of mining industry in the country during 1990s.

BGML has four central workshops, which besides catering the maintenance requirements of their own mines, produce a variety of mining equipment for the market. It is planning

to strengthen manufacturing activities with regard to traditional items as well as to diversity into new lines of products.

5. Bharat Aluminium Company Limited

Bharat Aluminium Company Limited (BALCO), the first unit in Public sector for production of Aluminium, was incorporated in November, 1965, for setting up an integrated Alumina/aluminium Complex at Korba in Bilaspur District of Madhya Pradesh based on Bauxite Deposits in Amarkantak/Phutka-pahar Area. The plant has an installed capacity of two lakh tonnes per annum and was commissioned in 1973. The smelter was commissioned in phase, corresponding to availability of electric power from Madhya Pradesh Electricity Board. The final phase was commissioned in September, 1984, which brought the installed capacity of one lakh per annum.

A 270 mW captive thermal power station was commissioned in 1987-88 for facilitating operations of Korba complex by reducing dependence on Madhya Pradesh Power Supply Board. Amarkantak and Phutka-Pahar Bauxite Deposits are nearing the end of economic working life. Till suitable alternative captive source for steady supply for bauxite are established, arrangements are being made to obtain Bauxite from Panchpatmali Mine NALCO and some private mine operators in Madhya Pradesh.

6. National Aluminium Company Limited

The National Aluminum Company Limited (NALCO) is the biggest integrated bauxite/ alumina/aluminium project in Asia which is based on extensive Bauxite Deposits in Orissa on East Coast of India. This company was incorporated in 7 January 1981, to exploit these deposits. The projects includes 24 lakh tonnes per year Bauxite Mine at Penchapatmali (Koraput), eight lakh tonnes per annual Alumina Plant at Damanjodi (Koraput), 2,18,000 tonnes per annual Aluminum Smeltre at Angul (Dhenkanal) and port facilities at Vishakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh) for export of Alumina and import of caustic soda.

M/s. Aluminium Pechiney of France supplied technical know how and basic engineering package. Engineers India Limited has done detailed engineering, construction, supervision, procurement assistance and overall monitoring of the project. Trial production was started in 1987-88 was the first years of commercial production when over 60 per cent of the rated capacity was achieved and this increased to 87.66 per cent in 1989-90.

NALCO entered export market of Alumina in January 1988 and aluminium metal in September 1988. Foreign exchange earnings through alumina and aluminium exports  in 1989-90 were about Rs. 412 crores.

7. Minerals Exploration Corporation Limited

Mineral Exploration Corporation Limited (MECL) was registered in 1972 to undertake detailed mineral exploration for assessing mineral reserves in the Country. Besides, the corporation is engaged in mine construction, geographical work at dam sites and drilling and construction of tubewells. The corporation, with its headquaters at Nagpur, carries out detailed mineral exploration in behalf of the Government of the Public and Private Sector enterprises and organizations, state governments, etc. on contractual basis. It plays the role of a premier exploring agency in the country. Since its inception in 1972, the company has explored places to the tune of tonnes of different mineral/ores comprising coal, bauxite, base metals, gold, iron ore, limestone, etc.

NATIONS WATER DEVELOPMENT AGENCY

The Agency was estiblished in 1982 to carry-out studies and investigations of possible storage reservoir sites and inter-connecting links in order to establish feasibility of proposals under the ‘National Perspective Plan’ which comprises of  two  components  viz.  Himalayan River Development and  Peninsular  Rivers  Development.  Detailed  studies  about quantum of which is surplus in various  Peninsular  Rivers  and  which  can  be  transferred  to  other Basins in the region after meeting reasonable needs of the Basin States as well as, feasibility reports of various components of schemes relating to  Peninsular  Rivers  Development  are being prepared. Studies are expected to be completed by the end of the eighth plan. Simultaneously, the National Water  Development  Authority  will  also  start  carrying-out studies for Himalayan Rivers Development during the eighth plan period.

PUBLIC SECTOR UNDERTAKINGS

(i) Water and Power Consultancy Services (India) Limited

The Water  and  Power  Consultancy  Services  (India)  Limited  was  set  up  in  June,  1969 to project and channelise India Expertise in power  and  water  resources  development  and their utilization. It offers consultancy services in all aspects of Water Resources Development including downstream aspects, ground water, supply and treatment, inland waterways and navigation, hydrographic surveys, etc.

(ii) National Project Construction Limited

The National Projects Construction Corporation Limited, which was earlier under the Department of Power, was brought under the Administrative Control of the Ministry of Water Resources in September, 1989.

The  corporation  was  set-up  in  January  venture  of  the  central  and  state  governments to undertake execution of heavy construction engineering works of all types. Over the years, the National Project Construction Corporation Limited have evolved into a professionally managed organization functioning on commercial lines and has successfully completed  a number of project of national importance. The corporation has gathered rich expertise and is now capable of undertaking construction of Large Super Thermal Power Stations, Hydro- Electric Power Projects, dams, bridges, tunnels, canals and other allied civil  works  and industrial structures.

National Water Board

A National Water Board was constituted by the Ministry of Water Resource in September, 1990, under the Chairmanship of Secretary, water resources, to consider and review the progress made on issues connected with the development of water resources as well as implementation of the National Water Policy and report the same of the National Water Resources Council. The first meeting of the National Water Board was held on 27 December 1990 at New Delhi. The progress on implementation of the National Water Policy was

reviewed. The proposed programme of actions on the ‘different clauses’ of the National Water Policy for 1991-92 was also discussed. It was inter-alia decided in the meeting to set- up Three Sub-Committees of the Board to prepare policy papers on:

(i) Setting-up of the River Basin Organization in the Country;

(ii) National Rehabilitation and Resettlement Policy;

(iii) The Water Information System.

These Sub-Committees  have  since  been  set-up.

Water Resources Day

The Water Resources Day is organized all over the Country since 1986 in April in order to make the people more conscious about  problems  associated  with  the  management  of water, a limited precious resource. As a result of the increasing encouraging response from the Central/state Government and other voluntary agencies concerned, the Water Resources Day was orgainsed at about 503 centres of the country during 1990. The theme for National Debate was “Water for future.”

The Water Resources Day was celebrated at 800 places all over the country during April-May 1991 by mobilizing the support of various state governments and other Agencies including Local Offices. In view of the over-all increasing demand for water linked with the increasing population pressure, the Theme for the forthcoming Water Resources Day was selected as “Water Conservation.”

Note: Courtesy Research and References Division Ministry of Information  and  Broadcasting Govt. of India.

FROM PROBLEM: CAUSES AND SUGGESTIONS

At present not only  India but the whole  world is facing the  food problem.

Main Causes of Food Problem: Main causes of food problem are as under:

1. Quantitative aspect of food problem

(a) Increasing Population: Though food production has increased all over the world as well as in India, yet due to over growth of population our needs also have increased for greater than the production.

(b) Secondary, man off and on suffers from the draughts and floods. This is the reason why the prices of food grains are shooting up.

Per capita net availability of food grains went up to a level of 496 grams per day in 1989 as compared to that of 395 grams in early fitfties. In 1990, it has been provisionally estimated at 476 grams per day. In terms of gross fertilizers consumption, Indra ranks fourth in the World after USA, USSR and China. The country has the largest in the World under Pulse Crops. In the field of cotton, India is the first one to evolve a cotton hybrid. The country has made a major breakthrough in Prawn Seed Production and Post Culture Technology.

Compound growth rate in agriculture production during the period 1949-50 to 1988-89 was 2.63 per cent per annum. Production of foodgrains increased significant from 549.2 lakh tonnes in 1949-50 to 1706.3 lakh tones in 1989-90. Cropping pattern is more diversified and

cultivation of commercial crops has received  new  impetus  in  line  with  domestic  demands and export requirements.

During Post Green Revolution period i.e. 1967-68 to 1988-89, growth rate in agriculture production was assessed at around 2.64 per cent annum. Production of foodgrains during this period from 950.5 lakh tones to 1699.2 lakh tones. Cropping pattern has undergone perceptible changes and non-traditional crops like summer moong, soya-bean, summer groundnut, sunflower etc., are gradually gaining importance. In order to utilize scares resources optimally, a short duration third crop is also being raised in some areas utilizing residual moisture available from post-kharif and post-rabi cultivation.

The index of agriculture production, which registered an increase of 21.0 per cent in 1988-89 over the previous year showed further increase of 1.6 per cent in 1989-90 due to primary increase recorded in the production of cotton, jute and mesta, sugarcane and other commercial crop. The index of foodgrains during 1989-90 however, registered a marginal increase of 0.4 per cent cover the previous years level of 182.5. It was anticipated that the foodgrains production during 1990-91  would  reach  an  another  record  level,  the  third  year in succession. Production of all lukseed crios except groundnut, cotton,  surgance,  jute  and mesta was also bright.

Inspite of an increase in production is failed to cope with the rapid and formidable increasing in population.

2. Qualitative aspects of food problem

If we view from nutritional view point, we find that foodgrains have the storages. If every person is given balanced diet, nutritious food must have per day per person 3000 calories but in India it is about 200 calories while Canada has 3060, America has 3090, U.K. has 3290 and Japan has 2280.

The qualitative aspects of the poor’s food are more pitiable. In this way, Indians do not even get appropriate nutritious elements. An average Indian  is  able  to  take  only carbohydrates, as he depends on ill-nutritious grains.  From  his  meals  protective  food  like milk, fish egg, fruits and vegetables are absent.

The following  reasons  are  responsible  for  unbalanced  diet:

(i) Less production of protective food.

(ii) Low capacity  for  the  purpose  of  nutritious  articles.

(iii) Refraining from meat, fish and eggs due to religious causes.

(iv) Unawareness of balanced diet.

However, our government has become conscious  of  improving  the  nutritious  status  of the people. A number of nutritious interventions have been made in recent years by different sectors of the  Government,  which  have  direct  and  indirect  impact  on  the  nutritious  status of the people. The nutritious programmes of the department of food are directed towards improving the nutritious status of the people through a combination of measures such as,

(i) Nutritious education and training.

(ii) Development and  production  of  nutritious  foods.

(iii) Fortification and  enrichment  of  food.

Nutritious education has become one of the important activities of the department for more than three decades. Thirty Four Mobile Food and Nutrition Extension Units (MEUs) equipped with mobile van, audio- visual equipments and  technical  trained  personnel  have been set up the Department of Food in different parts of the country to impart nutrition education in rural, urban and tribal areas. These units organise live demonstrations supported by lecture-cum-discussions, films and slide shows and exhibitions on various aspects of food, nutritions and health in collaboration  with  the  state  governments,  educational  institutions and voluntary orgainsations. The Department of Food also has  Thirty  Three  Food  and Nutrition Extensions (FNECs) in different Parts of Country  for  imparting  education  and training in home-scale preservation of fruits and vegetables and nutrition mainly to the housewives and providing progressing facilities for fruits and vegetables for domestic consumption.

Realizing the importance of integrated to nutrition, the Department of Food is implementing an Integrated Nutrition Education Scheme Department with a view to equip the grass-root level works of the concerned sectors with simple knowledge in food, nutrition and health so that these messages are conveyed to the community by all field functionaries during the course of their respective duties. Intensive training is imparted  to grass-root level workers and their supervisors belonging to different sectors implementing nutrition, health and welfare progrmmes by MEUs and FNECs by orgainising Integrated Nutrition Education Camps at the block level and orientation training Nutrition Education Camps at the block level orientation training courses at State Level Training Institutes or Home Science Colleges respectively.

A Nation Nutritious Week is celebrated in the Country from 1-7 September every year with a view to create nutritional awareness among the people. This Department has taken up action programmes for the development and production of low-cost proceed nutritious food for use in supplementary feeding, programme and meeting the requirements of vulnerable sections of the population. These foods are Miltone (a nutritious milk beverage), Energy Foods, Ready-to-Eat Extruded Food and Weaning Foods. It has also taken up schemes for fortification of milk with Vatamin ‘A’ and Salt with Iron. The Milk Fortification Scheme is in operation through 45 dairies in the Country covering 16 states and two union territories. The analysis of fruit and vegetable products under the regulation of quality control of this product for domestic consumption as well as export has also been entrusted to the department and is carried out at Four Laboratories at Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta and Madras.

3. Distribution aspect of Food Problem

Distribution of foodgrain is far from being satisfactory. It is essential that the available foodgrains in the country should be distributed to public at fair-price and appropriate time. But the policy adopted by the Government for food procurement, price control ends in fiasco due to lack of initiative, hoarding and Black-marketing by traders is the next problem. It is worth mentioning that our Government has taken up proper measures in this direction. The Public distribution System has become one of the basic features in the Governments Policy. Its role as an anti-inflationary measure has also been recognized. The system is designised. The system is designed to help both the producers and the consumers, as

procurement is linked to purchase and support prices and distribution is made at as more of less uniform prices throughout. The system has also helped to provide a nutritious diet at a low-budget to the common man. Moreover, this system has acted as an effective establishing factor in India’s Social Life by providing a steady supply of essential commodities at reasonable prices.

Pressured on the Public Distribution System continued, during the year due to higher prices of essential commodities in the open market. Total allocations of Rice and Wheat (including under PD, JRY Nutritional programme, etc.) during 1990-91 and 95.47 lakh tones respectively as against 85.26 and 93.09 lakh tones respectively in the previous year.

With a view to control sugar prices and ensure its availability as reasonability at reasonable rates to consumers, the Government took a number of measures including increase of Sugar (both free sale Levy Sugar) from 9.32 lakh tones in August, 1990 to 10.07 lakh tones per month in September on October, 1990.

In view of increased demand and reduction in the production of Indigenous Edible Oils due to delayed rainfall in Gujarat, total allocations of imported Edible Oils during 1990 were at the level of 6.52 lakh tones as against 3.91 lakh tones in the corresponding period in 1989, showing an increase of 66.5 per cent. The lifting by state/Uts against the allocation during 1990 was 5.21 as against 3.27 during 1989.

The Public Distribution System continued to be a major component of our strategy for growth with social justice. The Centre, states and union territories have a joint responsibility in making this system a success. The working of this system is periodically reviewed in consolation with state government and corrective measures taken. At the Centre, an Advisory Council functions to review its working from time  to  time.  In  the  states/Uts  Consumer Advisor Committee at District,  Block  and  Taluka  Levels  oversee  the  working  of  the  Fair Price Shops.  The  network  of  Fair  Price  Shops  has  been  expanding  over  the  years  and  in the last five years their number increased from 3.02 lakh (March, 1984) to 3.61 lakh (March, 1990). Special emphasis is being laid in opening of Fair Price Shops in remote, far-flung and inaccessible areas, particularly covering tribal population. With a view to ensuring that the essential commodities reach the farthest corners in hilly and inaccessible  areas,  the Government continued to provide financial assistance to states/Uts enabling them to purchase mobile vans. Such assistance was worth Rs. 144.50 lakh for purchase of 58 vans in 1990-91.

Government procures and supplies six essential commodities, viz., rice, Wheat Sugar, Imported Edible Oils, Kerosene and Soft Coke. States/Uts are free to include any other commodity of mass consumption by arranging for its procurement on their own. Some states have arranged supplies of Pulses, Vanaspati, Soaps, cycle types and tubes, torch cells  etc. through Fair Price Shops.

4. Economic aspect of food problem

The price of  foodgrains  is  soaring  high  while  income  has  no  proportionate increase. Hence poor people are unable to avail two meals a day. Some illustrations are as under:

(i) Cereals

Prince of Cereals, particularly Rice and Wheat, rose sharply towards the end of the third quarter of 1990-91. In additional to increased allocations of these commodities through

the Public Distribution System, the Food Corporation of India was permitted to sell 15 lakh tones of Wheat to roller flour  mills,  traders,  Government  Agencies  and  other  users  at  the rate of Rs 320 per quintal in Northern and Rs 330 per quintal in the Southern Parts of the country. The procurement price of Paddy (common variety) rose from Rs 185 per quintal in 1989-90 Rs 205 per quintal in 1990-91 and of Wheat from Rs 183 quintal for 1989-90 to Rs 215 quintal in 1990-91.

(ii) Pulses

In the wake of decline in the Production of Pulses in 1989-90 to 126. 1 lakh tones from

138.5 tonnes in 1988-89, the prince of Pulses during 1990-91 period increased by 14.5 per cent. In order to bridge the gap between demand-supply equilibrium, NAFED has been authorized to import pulses under OGL Scheme. Under this  scheme,  NAFED  registered contracts for a total quantity of 97.7 lakh during 1990-91. As an incentive to production, the Minimum Support Prices of Pulses have been increased substantially i.e. Rs. 325 per quintal for 1989-90 to Rs 421 per quintal for 1990-91 in case of Gram and Rs. 425 per quintal for 1989-90 to Rs. 180 per quintal for 1990-91 in the case of Arhar, Moong and Urad.

(iii) Edible Oils

Production of Oilseeds suffered a set-back during 1989-90.During this period the production declined to 167.3 lakh tones from 178.9 lakh tones in 1988-90. As a result of this decline, coupled with increased demand, the prices of Edible Oils rose by 30.1 per cent during 1990-

91. The Government has taken a number of steps to check the run-away increase in the prices of Edible Oils. This includes exemption of Excise Duty on Refined Rapeseed/Mustard seed Oil, reduction in the stock limits of Edible Oils with wholesalers and retailers and withdrawal of permission for use of 20 per cent Expellor Mustard/Rapeseed Oil in the manufacture of Vanaspati for ensuring increased availability of these oils during the  lean  period/festival season. To increase the available position of Edible Oils in the open market, the imports have been stepped-up from 3.73 lakh tones in the oil-years 1988-89 lakh tones in oil year 1989-90. The Minimum Support Prices of Oilseeds were stepped-up as an incentive to Oilseed Gravers.

In the Case of Groundnut, the Minimum Support Price was increased from Rs. 500 per quintal for 1989-90 to Rs. per quintal for 1990-91 and for Mustard Seed from Rs. 460 per quintal to Rs. 575 per quintal.

(iv) Cement

During the financial year 1990-91, the Wholesale Prince Index of Cement showed and increase to sharp increase  in  demand,  lower  growth  rate  of  production,  inadequate  supply of Coal, hike in railway freight charges, etc. The government took proper remedial steps.

Several factors contribution to the increase in prices. These included Budgetary Levies, Hike in Petroleum cumulative effect of high liquidity, High Budgetary deficit, fall in the production of some key commodities like Pulses, Oilseeds, etc substantial hike in minimum procurement/support prices of important agriculture commodities,  etc.,  and  the  situation being further aggravated by the Gulf Crisis.

The Government took several steps to contain the rising price spiral of essential commodities. Allocation of foodgrains (Rice and Wheat)  through  the  Public  Distribution System was increased from 1.55 lakh tones in  January  1991  to  1.81  lakh  tones  in  March 1990.

State Governments and UT administrations were asked to step up enforcement activities against hoarders, black-marketers and other antisocial elements. During the period from January, 1990 to March, 1991, a total number of 1,24,885 raids were made, 5,900 persons were arrested 4,557 persons were prosecuted and goods worth Rs. 1956.65 lakh were confiscated under the Essential Commodities Act.

CAUSES OF FOOD GRAIN PROBLEMS

The causes of foodgrain problems can be understood under three heads-long term; mid- term and short-term.

(a) Long-Term Causes

The long term  causes of food problem are as under:

(1) Population growth

Instant imbalance in supply and demand of foodgrains is consequent to the enhanced population pressure on the quantity of foodgrains.

(2) Decrease in agriculture output

For various reasons, agriculture output is decreasing  day to day.

(3) Decrease in Productivity

Due to the afforestation, land abrasion; insufficient manures, defective agricultural methods defective land tenures have led to decrease in productivity of land. Although new agricultural policy increased the main crops by times, yet compared to other countries, it is even less.

(4) Insistence of commercial agricultural

With the growth of importance to agriculture for commercial purposes, to earn immediate profit production of foodgrains is discouraged.

(5) Natural Calamities

At times, the natural calamities like floods, crops instead of nutritious foodgrains as the former has richer growth. Consequently there is scarcity of foodgrains.

(b) Mid-term Causes

(1) Position of 1947

With the independence in 1947, the country was sub-divided into Pakistan and India. The areas with rich agricultural produce went to Pakistan. This led to food crisis in India.

(2) Defective Food Distribution

Food crisis is chiefly due to defective food distribution. Traders and consumers store in lot when they see that production is less. Hence, crops available in market decrease and prices soar.

(3) Fall in Purchasing Capacity

Dearness has increased while income of the people has not risen. Thus to purchase foodgrains people lack the purchasing capacity.

(4) Limited Jurisdiction of Reserve Bank

Reserve Bank has extensive power to control the  credit  policy  of  commercial  banks, which prevent the traders from improper collection of foodgrains. However, it has no control over the indigenous bankers and sahukars. Hence its policy ends in failure.

(c) Short-Term Causes

This classification includes such causes which provoke the crisis through imbalance in supply and demand of foodgrains during a year.

Some causes are as under:

(1) Increase in Consumption Level

The progress of India people, on account of various  reasons,  has  increased  average income which has led to increase the consumption level. Increase in  demand  results  in decrease in foodgrains.

(2) Deficit in Production

Untimely rains and under rains during the year bring less production.

(3) Anti- Social Activities

Anti-social activities of traders like brokerage, hoarding and black-marketing result in artificial shortage of foodgrains.

(4) Transportation

Rise in the price of diesel and other lubricants as well as risks involved in transportation also result in shortage of foodgrains now and then.

CHANGE AGRICULTURE AND OVERGRAZING

(1) Jhum Cultivation

In North-East India (Meghalaya), non-mechanized  farming  system  called  ‘Jhum’ cultivation has been practised since long. They cut a clearing  in  a  forest  during  the  dry months, trees are felled, allowed to dry and  then  burnt.  The  fire  kills  weeds,  seeds  and insects and provides the mineral rich ash. With the onset of rains, the farmer plants a crop. The grain is harvested and the rest of the plant is burnt. When this system is practiced for 2 or 3 years, the soil fertility progressively decreases as there is less of ash every year (as compared to the amount in the first year when the trees were burnt). When it is no longer profitable to cultivate that part, the farmer moves on to another forest and repeats the same cycle.

(2) Overgrazing

Effects of over-grazing are well known on soil loss. Increasing number of livestock and migrating grazers have contributed to degradation of forests and the consequent devastation. The most accessible forest areas are heavily grazed. For instance,

(a) There are nearly 1200 thousand sheep and goats in alpine areas of U.P.

(b) Besides nearly 25,000 migration graziers visit the area.

(c) There are also  about 5 to 7,000 buffaloes  owned by Gujaras.

It is estimated that in absence of suitable checks, growing forestry stock will decrease from 13.79m3/head in 1981 in 2001; and reduction  in  annual  availability  of  grass  will  be from 3.60t/cattle unit in 1981 to 0.90t/cattle unit in 2001. Existing forests may thus not be able to  meet out  wood and  fodder requirements  of mankind  and livestock  respectively.

They Menace

(1) The annual loss of soil nutrients in this way is of the order of 5.37 million tones of NPK valued at about Rs. 700 crores.

(2) Besides, the expenses of soil removal, which gets silted in irrigation tanks, reservoirs, sea and riverbeds, are also quite high.

(3) Overgrazing is a major hazard afflicting pastures, forests and mountains.

(4) There are huge semi-arid zones in India used for grazing. But grazing destroys the little covers and  enhances wind and erosion.

Suggestions

(1) There must be development crops for arid regions. For example, there  are  some plants, which yield hydrocarbons (substitute for oil), and grow well in arid conditions. These include jojaba, a plant that yields a sap like diesel oil and milkweed.

(2) The Jidhpur Arid Zone Rea Institute is already experimenting with such varieties.

(3) In overgrazed areas there should be grown fodder trees like Ku-babul, which in irrigated condition gives enough green fodder per acre to maintain six cows.

(4) Most villages should be asked to grow such plants instead of grass on panchyyati pastures.

(5) Goats and sheep should be kept in enclosures and fed  with  tree  fodder,  through which many more calories will be converted into meat  and  wool.  These  animals waste huge quantities of calories  roaming  on  pastures.  Ku-babul  can  supply  the high quality feed.

MODERN AGRICULTURE: EFFECTS OF

With a view to feed rapidly increasing new mouths and to cope with the necessity of providing sufficient food to the people, various techniques and methods have been applied in the field of agriculture.

(1) Agriculture Census

The Department of Agriculture and Cooperation has been conducting agriculture census in each of the plan period since 1970-71. Census in 1970-71 and 1980-81 were organized as part of the World Agricultural Census Programmes sponsored by the Food and Agriculture Organisation of United Nations. They were conducted on a  complete  enumeration  basis  in most States/Uts. The other two census with agriculture years 1976-77 and 1985-86 as reference

period were conducted on a census-cum sample basis to reduce burden tin collection and processing of primary as also to keep costs low.

The agriculture Census seeks to collect information on distribution of holding an area operated along with its related characteristics such as tenancy and terms of leasing, land use and cropping pattern, irrigation and sources of irrigation etc by different six classes. Data is utilized for formulation of Poverty Alleviation Programmes in general and uplifts of Small and Marginal Farmers in particular. Skewness in distribution of land holdings and pattern of tenancy are also extremely useful for the Department of Rural Development for certain programmes.

(2) Agricultural Research and Education

The Department of Agriculture Research and Education Raise More darker which was set up in 1973 in the Ministry of Agriculture is responsible for coordinating research and educational activities in agriculture, animal Husbandry and fisheries. Besides, it helps to bring about inter-departmental and inter-institutional with the National and International Agencies engages in the same and allied fields. The Department provides Government support, service and linkage to Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR).

(3) Indian Council of Agriculture Research

The Indian Council of Agricultural Research  (ICAR)  is  a  registered  society  and  is  the apex body responsible for promoting, conducting and co-ordinating research education and primary extension education in the fields of agriculture, animals  science,  fisheries  and  the allied sectors in the country.

The Council is directly involved in undertaking research through its 46 Central Institutes including Four Nation Bureaus, 20 National Research Centres and Nine Project Directorates on Fundamental and Applied Aspects of Individual Crops, commodities and disciplines which have direct relevance to Agriculture Animal Husbandry, Fisheries and Allied Sectors. In addition the ICAR also operates 71 All India Coordinated Research Projects, which are multi-locational and multi-disciplinary in nature on important commodities, and research has proved its efficacy and utility over the last successive plan period as an effective instrument to tackle the diverse problems characteristic of India Agriculture.

The educational programmes at the National Level are by the large being conducted through 26, Agriculture Universities located in various important states. Four of the ICAR’s Institutes viz Indian Agriculture Research Institute, New Delhi, Indian Karnal and Central Institute of Fishery Education, Bombay, also perform educational functional and offer Post Graduated, Bombay Programmes in the capacity of well-recognised Deemed University and award degrees. The ICAR is also supporting the educational programmes of  the  State Agriculture Universities by providing developmental grants to these universities.

The ICAR is also conducting first-line demonstration for the transfer of improved technology to the extension/state functionaries and the village-level workers as well as to selected farmers. The council has been operating projects like National Demonstrations, Operational Research Projects and Lab-to-Land Programmes at 301 Centres in the country including 45 centres for upliftment of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. A network of 109 Krishi Vigyan Kendras has also been established for imparting on-farm training in various aspect of agriculture. Animal Husbandry, Fisheries and allied areas for youth, farm-

men and women and other categories of  rural  workers.  These  programmes  also  have  a degree up-support in the form of Trainers Training Centres for providing an up-to-date knowledge of farm-worthy advancement made in research.

Attempted are being made to make  Agriculture  more  science-based  and  industry- linked. Biotechnology, Gentic  Engineering,  Photosynthesis,  Tissue  Culture,  Bio-insecticides and Pheromones are the merging area of research to promote growth of  agriculture productivity. Accordingly, the ICAR has established. Three Nation Research Centres in Biotechnology in agriculture, animal health and  animal  production  at  Three  National Institutes. It involves Biological Nitrogen Fixation, Plant Cell and Tissue Culture, Molecular Biology and Biochemistry of monoclonal antibodies and hybridomes for cheaper and more effective Immunodiagnostic and Immunoprophylactic Agents and Multiple Ovulation, Embryo Transfer Technology, Genetic Manipulation and  Cryo-Preservation.  The  following  priorities and thrust areas in respect of Agriculture Research and  Educational  have  been  identified which are based on the present need to make agriculture knowledge intensive using  also frontier technologies to accelerate the Research and Development output in critical areas, developing appropriate rural technologies for farm women, research in agricultural, economic and policy planning and creating genetic enhancement centers and technology  blending centures etc.:

(a) Conservation and  planned  exploitation  of  Germ-plasm  Resources.

(b) Enhancing productivity through evolution of new high-yielding Hybrides/varities/ starins with tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses.

(c) Development of Intergrated Pest Management Practices to optimize plant protection.

(d) Bredder Seed  Production;

(e) Research on  Export  Oriented  Commodities;

(f) Diversification of agriculture with emphasis on Agro-forestry, livestock and fishers;

(g) Development and  refinement  of  Dry  Farming  Technology.

(h) Improving Nutrient Management System.

(i) Inventory of  Natural  Resources.

(j) Energy Management in Agriculture.

(k) Post-harvest Technology and Engineering with emphasis on on-farm storage.

(l) Forestering excellence in research and educational programmes.

(m) Tansfer of Technology an Improving Information and Communication Systems,

(n) Human Resources Development.

Crops Science

Research Advances in Crops Sciences including crop protection techniques have given the National confidence to produce foodgrains to meet not only present requirement but to achieve the target of 2250-2500 lakh tones to foodgrains set for the ensuing year. During the year, the emphasis was given on attaining higher crop productivity and sustainability of crop yield for which effort were made to provide adequate infrastructure and redeployment of scientific strength to provide major thrust to the priority areas. New varieties of Rice- (Pusa-Basmati-1, Kasturi, Nalini, Amulya, Prana, Aditya, Govind); Wheat Varun, Hybrid

DHM 105) were released having desirable traits like  high  productivity  and  tolerance  to various biotic and abiotic stresses. High-priority given to develop better production and protection for Pulses and  Oilseeds  in  view  of  the  urgent  need  to  increase  their  production in the country. Many highyieling-improved varities were developed. The important ones are: Pigeonpea Hybrid, ICPH-8; Chick-pea  Varities,  Pushja  256  (wide  adaptability  with  bold seeds) and PBG-1 (tolerant to ascochyta blight), Mungbean Varities PDD 54 (early maturing), Pusa 105 (Powdery mildew resistant) and Mothbean Varity Moth-880 for rained conditions. The importance development of Malviya Rajmah-15 is another landmark for increasing total production of  Pulses in the  Country.

Research efforts on-coarse grains like pearl Milled and Small Millets has led to development of several high-yielding varities and hybrids. The extra short duration (about 70 days) Pear Millet Hybrid HHB67, Resistant to Downy Mildew was released for Semi-arid Areas of Western Rajasthan, Kutch, Haryana and commercial cultivation. Variety VL-149 of Finger Millet maturing in about 1900-105 days having multiple resistances to pests and diseases was identified for release. Two hybrids and two varieties of Sweet Sorghum for Sugar and Syrup Production and Two Barley Varieties, which will go a long way in stabilizing, yield of these crops.

There was record production of 114 lakh bales of cotton and India is now in a position of exporting cotton, yarn and texitiles cultivation of Cotton Hybrids.  Recently,  Two  Desi Hybrids and a Hybrid with Cytoplasmic Base were released for cultivation. Research efforts have been intensified for developing Short-duration Hybrids for North Indian Conditions. Similarly, record production of (2,242) lakh tones of Sugarcanes was obtained using improved varities and practicing better Crop Management  Recommendations.  New  thrust  has  been given on quality seed in adaptive research for further increasing production and productivity of Sugarcanes. High-yielding varities  and  production  technology  for  all  types  of  Tobacco have been developed and efforts are being made to develop varities possessing Low Nicotine and Tar  Contents.

Production of quality seed is a vital link in the spread of new varities and, hence, this programme was given a very high-priority by executing  National  Seed  Project.  Phase  III  of this project has been taken up  for  accelerating  the  development  of  High  Quality  Breeder Seed.

Conservation of Valuable Plant Genetic Resources is vital for the success of Crop Improvement Programme.  National  Bureau  of  Plant  Genetic  Resource  established  in  1976 is acting as a nodal Institute for the  important  activities  related  to  collection,  conservation and exchange of Germ plasm. Lately over 2400 Germ-plasm accessions were added to over one lakh accessions already conserved in the Gene  Bank  for  long-term  conservation.  To further strengthen the research efforts on conservation has been launched at  NBPGR,  New Delhi.

Sustainability and environmental quality have been the major considerations for Developing Crop Protection Programmes. Major thrust was given in promotion of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) concept in all major crops. This  included  biology  control  of  crops pests and diseases; mass multiplication and development of appropriate systems for dissemination of biological gents and use of novel methods such as insect growth regulators, Pheromones, Kairmones, etc. Development of mass multiplication and field release

technologies for many natural  irritants  like  Chrysopa  and  Trichogramma  were  developed and popularized. The Integrated Pest  Management  (IPM)  recommendations,  which  were based on sound ecological principles, have been developed for Major Crops such as Cotton, Sugarcane, Pulses and Oilseeds.  The  IPM  recommendations  for  different  Agro-ecological Zones and Cropping Systems for Pests like Holiothis were chalked-out and widely populatised. Water Hyacinth and Water Fern, the two serious Weed Pests, have been controlled, another Dreaded Weed, is also being checked in Karnataka with the help of beetle feeing on it. The Italian Honey Bee is extremely popular  in  Punjab,  Harayana  and  Himachal  Pradesh  among the apiarists due to its High-Honey Yielding Potential. This Bee was successfully introduced in Bihar also where One Point Five to two times increase in honey-yield was obtained over the Indian Bee.

IMPROVEMENT IN AGRICULTURE

The effects  of  modern  agriculture  can  be  summarised  as  under:

(1) Horticulture

The scientific cultivation of Horticultural Crops and Plantation Crops has  helped  to increase both production and productivity. In fruits, a production level of 265 lakh tones has been reached largely due to superior vegetatively propahated planning  material,  regular bearing Hybrids of Mango, high-yielding varieties of  Grapes,  Papaya,  Pomegranate,  banana, Ber, Aonal, Lime and Kinnow Mandarin, etc better crop production technology and Pest and disease control measures.

The vegetable Production has reached 495.3 lakh tones from an area of 45-lakh hectare due to 106 improved high-yielding varieties including F1 hybrids  in  17  vegetable  crops evolved so far. A few of these tare resistant to diseases and pets. Similarly,  the  Potato Production has reached 140 lakh tones as a result of 14 newly evolved disease  resistant varieties growing in different parts of the country, use of Virus Free Seeds being produced through advanced techniques and improved production technologies. Introduction of ‘True Potato Seeds’ has been done successfully to reduce the over-all cost of Potato Production.

Release of 18 improved high-yielding varieties in six other Tuber Crops like Cassava, Sweet Potato, Yam etc. have improved prospects of higher production of these crops for food and industrial purpose.

(2) Agriculture

Availability of Edible Oils including Vanaspati has increased significantly. The country has been able to sustain and improve availability of basis consumption articles and has, thus, raised the standard of living.

(3) Land Utilisation

Land utilization statistics are available for 92.7 per cent of total geographical  area  of 3287.3 lakh hectares. According to land use  statistical  available  from  states,  area  under forests has increased from 404.8-lakh hectare in 1950-51 to 667.3 lakh hectares during the same period. Broad cropping  pattern  indicates  that  though  foodgrains  have  preponderance in gross cropped area as compared to non-foodgrains, their relative share came down from

76.7 per cent during 1950-51 per cent during 1986-87.

(4) Seeds

India has transformed itself from a subsistence economy and food importing country to one, which is self-sufficient in foodgrains. Recognizing seed as the primary input for increasing agriculture production, the Central Government established the National Seeds Corporation (NSC) in 1963 and the State Farms Corporation of India (SFCI) in 1969 to encourage the production and distribution of certified seeds of various crops. Thirteen State Seed Corporations have also been established to supply improved seeds to farmers.

(5) Quality Control

The Seeds Act was passed by  Parliament  in  1966  to  ensure  that  farmers  get  good quality seeds. There is a Central Seed Testing Laboratory and 90 State  Seed  Testing Laboratories functioning in various states/union territories. There are also 19  seeds certification agencies. New varieties of seeds are notified by  the  Central  Seed  Committee. About 1775 new varieties have been notified so far. This has been  possible  due  to  the collection efforts of research scientists, seeds technologists, progressive farmers and administrators involved in agricultural development.

(6) Breeder Seeds

Production of Breeder Seeds is organized by the Indian Council of Agriculture Research (ICAR) through the concerned breeders and scientists on receipt of indents from the state governments. The National Seeds Corporation (NSC) and State Farms Corporation of  India (SFCI) also produce Breeder Seed.

(7) High-Yielding Variety programme

This High-Yielding Variety  programme  was  started  in  1966-67  as  a  major  plank of agriculture strategy for increase strategy of increasing production of foodgrains in the country.

The main objectives of the programmes for increasing food grains production during the Seventh Plan inter-alia included the following:

(i) Achieving self-sufficiency if  food grains with the complete elimination of imports;

(ii) Imparting greater  stability  of  foodgrains  production;

(iii) Acceleration of  growth   rate  in  production  of  pulses  and  coarse  grains,  and

(iv) Protection of the interest both  of  farmers  and  consumers  through  price  support and better distribution measures.

High-yielding variety programmes is supported by the Cental sector Scheme of:

(i) Mini-kit programmes of Rice, Wheat, Jowar, Bajra, Maize and Ragi,

(ii) Maize demonstrations in tribal/backward areas,

(iii) State-level training  of  extension  workers.

Mini-kit Demonstration Programmes aims at popularizing newly  released  varieties and getting the newly evolved varieties tested under field conditions. For this, all large number of seed mini-kit containing 0.25 kg. 5 kg seeds are distributed at a nominal cost to farmers.

The objectives of Maize and Millers Demonstrations in backward and tribal areas is to increase the adopting of latest Maize and Millets Protection Technology, bring about an increase in the per unit are production of Maize and Millets and improve the economic condition of the backward and tribal farmers.

(8) Dryland/Rainfed Farming

About 990 lakh hectare in the country is rainfed accounting for 70 per cent of the net sown area of 1410.6 lakh hectare crops grown and cropping practices followed in these areas entirely depend upon the rainfall which is often erratic and unpredictable. Bulk of the crops like Rice, Jowar, Bajra, Other Millets, Pulses, Oilseeds and Cotton are grown in this area under rainfed conditions. Farmers in these areas, particularly, small and Marginal farmers, are still practicing subsistence farming and are not in the vertex of vicious circle. Wide fluctuations in production in these areas is therefore of crucial importance.

The Government has given high-priority for the development of Dryland Areas and accorded the importance for utilization of potential of these areas for:

(i) Realising the projected requirement of about  240  M.T.  of  annual  food  production and to smooth out fluctuation in an annual production.

(ii) Reducing regional disparities between irrigated and vast rainfed areas;

(iii) Restoring ecological balance by ‘greening’ rainfed areas through appropriate mixture of trees, shrubs and grasses and

(iv) Generating employment for rural masses and reducing large-scale migration  from rural area to already congested cities in towns. Holistic approach for Integrated Farming Systems Development on Watershed Basis in rainfed areas would  be  the main pursuit of the development activities.

(9) Himalayan Watershed Management Project in Uttar Pradesh

This Himalayan  Watershed  Management  Project  in  Uttar  Pradesh  was  launched  in 1983 with the assistance of the World Bank. The main objective of this project is to minimize further deterioration of the Himalayan Ecosystem caused by depletion of forests cover, over-grazing, bad land use and careless road construction.  The  project  is  spread  over  3.12 lakh hectare in  Two  Watersheds  namely;  Nayar  in  Garhwal  and  Panar  in  Kumaon  Regions of Uttar Pradesh with a total cost of US$ 660 lakh and World Bank Loan US$ 462 lakh.

FERTILIZER PROBLEM

Fertilizer is very essential for increasing productivity in agriculture. It has been estimated that about 70 per cent of growth in agriculture can be attributed to increased fertilizers application. Increase in yearly consumption of fertilizers would thus be a good indication of the country’s progress in agriculture.

Total consumption of fertilizers went up from 69,000 tonnes of nutrients in 1950-51 to estimated level of 115.68 lakh tones during 1989-90. During 1990-91, the consumption of fertilizers was around 126 lakh tones.

Soil Tests

Soil-testing is an important tool to  advise  farmers  on  judicious,  balanced  and  efficient use of fertilizers for economic returns. There are 461 soil-testing laboratories with analysis capacity of 64.75-lakh-soil sample per annum. It is intended to expand the soils, twenty-five sets of Atomic Absorption Spectro Photometers had been provided to the state governments under the India-United Kingdom Bilateral Programme. Besides, the state government/ agriculture universities have installed a number of such equipments.

Balanced and Integrated use of Fertilizers and Organic Manures

Appreciable progress has been made in crop production by the increased use of ‘NPK Fertilizers’. However, lately the intensification of agriculture coupled with the use of his analysis chemical fertilizers has resulted in soil micronutrient deficiencies in large areas. To ensure optimum benefit from ‘NPK Fertilizers’, it is necessary that they are applied on the basis of soil-testing results and, where necessary, in combination with micronutrients farmers are being encouraged through extension training to do this. Organic Manures are essential for maintaining proper soil health. The Country has a potential of 650 million of rural and 160 lakh tones of Urban Compost. Presently, the potential is not fully utilized.

Fertilizers Quality Control

Quality, price and trade in fertilizers are regulated so that farmers get good quality fertilizers at the right time and at reasonable prices.  The  Government  has  issued  the Fertilizers (Control) Order, 1985, under the Essential Commodities Act, 1955. This order sampling analysis and provision for appointment of enforcement agencies for regulating the trade and distribution of fertilizers. There are 43 fertilizers Quality Control and Training Institute at Faridabad with its One Central Fertilizers Quality Control and Madras. Total analyzing capacity of these laboratories in the Country is  87,400  fertilizers  samples  per annum. The institute organizes training programmes for state enforcement officers, state fertilizers analysts and for foreigner’s developing countries. Besides, training courses for fertilizers dealers are also organized in collaboration with the state governments and the fertilizers industry.

Development of Bio-Fertilizers

Decreasing non-renewable petroleum reserves all over the World and increasing cost of chemical fertilizers have necessitated search, for alternative renewable sources to meet the increasing demand, for chemical fertilizers, Emphasis is being laid  on  integrated  nutrient supply through combined use of fertilizers,  organic  manures  and  bio-fertilizers.  Scientists have proved that bio-fertilizers are an effective, cheap and renewable supplement to chemical fertilizers. Rhizobium inoculants have been found to be effective for pulses, Legume Fodder, Legume Oilseeds like Soyabean, Groundnut and Blue Green Algae (BGA) for lowland Paddy.

Considering the prospect of bio-fertilizers, the government is implementing the National Project on Development and Use of Bio-fertilizers with a view to produce, distribute and promote bio-fertilizers used by organizing training and demonstration programmes and also quality testing of bio-fertilizers. Under the scheme, one National Centre at Ghaziabad in Uttar Pradesh and Six Regional Centres Bangalore (Karnataka), Bhubaneshwar (Orissa), Hissar (Haryana), Imphal (Manipur), Jabalpur (M.P.) and Nagpur (Maharasthra) have been

established. The anticipated production from these Centres during 1990-91 is 85 tonnes of Rhizobium Inocculant. In addition to production, these Centres have “Culture Collection Bank” with a good number of effective and promising starting. Quality-testing for bio- fertilizers have also been taken up at these centers. During 1988-89, Sixty Blue Green Algae (BGA) Centres have produced 110 tonnes and during 1989-90, it was 200 tonnes. It is expected that during 1990-91 also the production will be maintained at the same level.

Fertilizers and Pollution

Some of the fertilizers have washed off the lands through irrigation, rainfall and drainage, into rivers and streams. There they can seriously disturb the aquatic ecosystem. Depletion of dissolved oxygen caused by excessive algae growths can bring disaste or death to fish and other aquatic biota. Excessive and indiscriminate application of inorganic fertilizers often leads to accumulation of nitrates in water. When such waters are drunk by living beings, these nitrates are reduced to the toxic nitrites by intestinal bacteria. Nitrites can cause a serious disease known as nethnohlobinemia. The disease can inflict serious damage to respiratory and vascular systems and may even cause suffocation.

The indiscriminate and excessive use of fertilizers can have serious and adverse ecological consequences, especially in aquatic ecosystems and ground water resources. The world’s ecosystems form a sort of continuous and interlinked network. As such, the materials lost by one ecosystem may spell a gain for its neighbours. Hence fertilizers when applied in excess, leach from crop fields into water bodies, affecting the down-stream aquatic life.

Beneficial Affects of Fertilizers

Known beneficial  effects  of  fertilizers  use  in  ecosystems  include  the  following:

(1) Increase in  food  production,

(2) Improvement of  soils  in  temperature  areas,

(3) Checking of  soil  erosion

(4) Conservation of  soil  and  water;

(5) Enhancement in water and efficiency of crops.

Adverse Effects of Fertilizers

Some adverse  effects  of  fertilizers  used  are  as  under:

(1) Changes in mobility status of nutrients in soils.

(2) Deterioratory of  water  resources  caused  by  eutrophication.

(3) Stimulation of weed growth in crop fields.

(4) Disturbance in the ionic balance and equilibrium in soils, often leading to high acidity, nutritional imbalance, shortages of certain trace elements, and molybdenum or selenium toxicity.

(5) The Excessive applications of nitrogenous fertilizers to soils can lead to its accumulation to such a stage that the plants begin to absorb excess amounts and even then some of the excess amounts present in the soil get leaked off through the soil into groundwater or into streams and springs.

PESTICIDES: ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEM

Use of Pesticides

Until 1940’s the following chemicals were used to control pests:

(1) Elements fungicides (S, Cu, Hg, organomercury) against fungal diseases.

(2) Copper sulphate, sodium aresenite and ferrous sulphate against weeds.

(3) Nature insecticides e.g. pyrethrum and nicotine, against beetles and aphids.

(4) Tar oil, petroleum, etc., against and red spider mite eggs.

(5) Lead arsenate against caterpillars.

Even these chemicals were sparingly used. The applications to cereals used to be confined to seed treatment with organomercury to kill-borne pathogens.

The organochlorine insecticides and herbicides became quite widespread in the mid and late 1950s and a large variety of these dangerous compounds were being used in the 1960s in USA, UK, and other developed countries. The British Govt. approved over 150 chemicals for use as pesticides/herbicides by 1970.

THE HAZARDOUS METHODS OF PESTICIDE APPLICATION

The main method of pesticide application on a large scale is the ‘Aerial Drift Spray”. It is a highly inefficient and wasteful, capital-intensive technique. A close study shows its nature:

(1) More than  40  per  cent  of  applied  pesticide  is  normally  out  of  the  target  area.

(2) 15 per cent is out of the target crops.

(3) 40 per cent near the target insect.

(4) 75 per cent is not in contact with it.

(5) It is estimated that the insect through contact, inhalation and ignition absorbs less than one of the total applied pesticide.

(6) Only about 0.3 per cent of the applied insecticides appear to be absorbed by aphids on bean contours and 0.02 per cent by myriads on cocoa. The wasteful use is magnified by the practice followed by farmers who apply pesticide according to the pre-set schedules prepared by manufacturers. Indeed the actual use of pesticides by many advanced country farmers may safely be cut by 30 to 50 per cent with no adverse effect on crop production in case pesticides are applied only when necessary and in relation to specific pests.

The following are some general properties of pesticides or their residues:

(1) They often strike the intended pests as well as several off.

(2) Many of  them continue  to persist  and cannot  be disposed  off.

(3) They may cause unintended effects like resistance, faunal displacement and other population changes.

(4) They may be carried to places fare removed from the points of application or origin.

(5) Their concentration and magnification in biological systems may lead to certain unexpected or untoward result.

PROBLEMS CREATED BY THE PESTICIDES APPLICATION

Pesticides widely distributed by natural means but they tend to retain much of their biocidal activity for fairly long periods. On account of the use of different kinds of poisonous agriculture chemicals the whole biosphere is being increasingly poisoned and polluted. Many of these chemicals and pesticides are known to persist for long periods in the environment. Their concentration builds up geometrically as they are transferred to different stages of the food web.

Harms caused  by  the  use  of  pesticides  are  as  under:

(1) Harm to Fish

Serious cases of fish mortality have occurred following the leaching of poisonous biocides from agricultural fields to nearby rivers or streams after rainfall. Great concern was shown on a case of large-scale fish kill in the lower Mississippi river in U.S.A. wherein five million fish died. Careful investigation indicated that the fish had died due to dumping of Endrin- rich agriculture wastes and runoff into a tributary of the Mississippi River the Memphis.

The widespread use of DDT as an insecticide has also aroused considerable concern in recent years. As a result, some countries have already legally banned its use.

(2) Harm Caused by the Herbicides

Residues of various weedicides and insecticides often accumulate in agricultural soils rapidly. Insecticides are designed to kill insects. As such they may not be toxic to plants. On the contrary to it, some herbicides differ from insecticides in killing both desirable species as well as the intended target.  They  may  adversely  affect  such  soils  microbes  as  nitroes fixing blue-green  algae  and  bacteria.  This,  in  turn,  may  impair  the  growth  and  production of higher plants.

(3) Damage to the Extent of Complete Destruction of Vegetation

The impact of some chemical wastes as phenols, metals etc. applied to soil may go to the extent  of  complete destruction  of  vegetation and also  soil  sterilization

(4) Findings of the Researches

Extensive researches in the USA found widespread distribution of DDT residues through food grains in several lakes. Residues were detected in shallow and deep-water mud samples, crustaceans, whitefish, duck ring-billed and herring gulls and other fauna. Both DDT and Dieldrin are found passing from mother off spring through the placenta in mice and certain other animals, possible including man.

(5) Adverse Consequence of Pesticides like DDT

Most pesticides tend to accentuate the problems of both production and pollution instead of containing them. The consequence of pesticides is almost invariably adverse and harmful. In the Ninteenth century, the ladybird beetle was brought from Australia  to  California  to control a scale insect pest of oranges. It is reported that the beetle successfully kept the pest under check for more than five decades until about 1946 when DDT began to be used in the citrus orchards. The beetle was susceptible to DDT and  hence  its  population  declined. However, a subsequent withdrawal of DDT again restored the natural balance of biological control within a few years.

In fact, DDT is one of the most effective pesticides known. This is the reason why it was banned in the USA in 1972. its remarked insecticidal properties were first discovered in 1939. it became a ubiquitous contaminant of fish, penguins, birds and human being. Hence a popular public movement started in the USA that asked the Government to protect the public from the general toxification of the environment by DDT and persistent poisons.

(6) Harm to Human Beings

Human beings are exposed to pesticides mainly through the intake of food and war but also by inhaling contaminated air. Several pesticides are teratogenic,  mutagenic,  or carcinogenic.

(7) Harm to Bees

Bees vitally aid the  pollination  of  several  plants.  Pesticides  have  adversely  affected some honey bees and other useful insects whose populations have declined. According to Pimental, annual agriculture  losses  due  to  poor  pollination  from  pesticides  can  be  as  high as US$ 4000 million in the USA.

(8) Damage to Crops

(i) Sometimes crops are damaged by pesticide applications, e.g. application of improper dosage under unfavourable conditions.

(ii) Herbicides that drift from a treated crop to a nearby crop also cause serious environmental problems. Persistent herbicides also can injure crops planted in rotation.

(9) Harm Caused to Fishery and Wildlife

Drifting or leaching pesticides drain into nearly water bodies causes fishery and wildlife losses.  Wild  birds  and  mammals  exposed  to  pesticides  suffer  by  death  from  direct exposure to high doses and reduced survival growth  and  reproduction  from  exposure  to subtle dosages.

(10) Harmful Effect on Decomposers

Pesticides have harmful effects on insects, earthworms, invertebrates, protozoa, and microbes found in soils, especially the decomposers. It is reported that human pesticide poisonings, reeducation in insects and mites, and honeybee poisonings account for about 70 per cent of the calculated socio-environmental costs for pesticides in the USA.

(11) Development of Secondary Pests

The use of pesticides kills natural enemies and creates such problems as the development of secondary pests eg. Red spider mites. Resurgence of primary pests can also occur. To illustrate, caterpillars of the small cabbage white  butterfly  in  Brussels  sprouts  reappeared after DDT has killed their natural enemies. Resistance to pesticides is a cause for  serious concern. Other hazards include those to the operator or worker who sprays pesticide, those to the consumer of the crop and those to wildlife.

(12) Elimination of Birds

Some species of Eagles and top carnivors are known to be eliminated by DDT because contaminated adults failed to lay viable eggs. Populations of peregrine falcons  and  some pelicans have disappeard from some areas from some areas where excessive use of DDT interfered with the bird’s ability to transport calcium to growing eggs, leading to marked thinning of the eggs shells. Such weak eggs fail to reach the hatching stage. It is discovered that in ringdoves, DDT greatly reduced the activity of carbonic anhydrase. This  enzyme  is critical in providing calcium for eggshell growth. When the pesticide inhibits this enzyme, eggshell grows thinner.

(13) Growth of New Pests

Artificial introduction of pesticides in the environment upsets natural biological controls. This is the reason why new pests are created in this way because their natural predators, which previously checked their populations, are eliminated. In this way mites have become a pest as a consequence of the emergence of the pesticide industry. Indiscriminate and excessive use of DDT killed some insect predictors of these mites, enabling the mites to multiply to pest status.

(14) Effect on Algae

Some of the pesticides inhibit division in aquatic algae. They may decrease their rates of photosynthesis. In this way they almost produce changes in the species composition and/ or diversity of algal communities. The algae-grazing animals are more affected by the level of blooms.

(15) Flora And Fauna

Pesticides have adverse effects on the flora and fauna  of  soils.  Effects  on  mycorrhizal fungi or decomposer bacteria in forests would almost certainly alter plant community structure in forests. Some soil animals consume plant debris and contribute to soil fertility. Use of insecticides changes the populations of some of these animals. It leads to reduction in soil fertility especially in woodlands.

IMPROVEMENTS BROUGHT IN LAND RESOURCES

It is estimated that in our country there has been a slight increase in the net sown area. About 23 million ha have been added over three decades. This is about 47.7% of total area. Another 1.3% of the land is under fruit trees. Nearly 5% of the land falls under fallow land. This land is cultivated once in every 2-3 years. In this way on an average nearly 51% of the total area, is  cultivated  every  year.  Efforts  are  made  to  restore  the  fertility  of  fallow  land by use of fertilizer and new technology. In view of the rapidly increasing population pressure on land, meagre pastureland is left. Generally for self-contained economy and proper eco- balance at least one-third  of  the  total  land  area  must  be  under  forest  and  natural vegetation. But in our country it is as low as 19.3%. As shown by satellities only about 46 million ha is under real forest. As such it  is  essential  for  us  to  increase  our  area  under forests.

Integrated Land Use Planning

Although land is an important component of the life support system in our country, it has been overused and even  abused  over  the  centuries.  In  1972  Mrs.  Indira  Gandhi  said, “We can no longer afford to neglect our most important natural resource. This is not simply an environmental problem but one which is basic to the future of our country.” In a predominantly agricultural country like India land becomes more important. Due to exploding population, soil is being used increasingly. It poses a great threat to its productivity because careless use of soil leads to adverse results as under:

(1) Damage to soil,

(2) Reduction in  quality  and  quantity  of  woodland,  grassland,  cropland,

(3) Soil erosion,

(4) Degradation of  watersheds  and  catchments;

(5) Deforestation and desertification.

At present land is under stress due to sprawl in agriculture, industry and urbanization.

India has one of the lowest men: land ratio-hardly 0.48ha/per capita. It is essential to develop a strategy to cure past damage and to save the country from future damage to land. This can be achieved by using following means:

(1) Preparation of accurate land use data through remote sensing etc.

(2) By a time bound nation-wide survey programme of micro-level land use planning giving short and long-term scenatious.

(3) Preparation of land use classes.

(4) Review all existing legislations and updating them.

(5) Preparation of management plans for land amelioration. It is incumbent upon as to adopt a dynamic land-use policy. Our Government is not unaware of this all. Headed by the Prime Minister, the Government has constituted an  apex  body called the National Land use and Wastelands Development Council (NLUWDC). At the second level two boards were set up in 1985 as under:

(1) First National land use and Conservation Board (NLICB) (Ministry of Agriculture);

(2) Second National Wastelands Development Board (NWDB) (Ministry of Rural development).

Their working is as under:

(i) Wastelands Development

Wastelands are those pieces of land which for one reason or the other like the  life sustaining potential. Besides earlier existing wastelands increasing misuse of land resources through shortsighted development policies have resulted into wastelands. Nearly half of the land area of the country is lying as wasteland. Degraded, mined and other wasteland should not be left as it is. Instead it should be reclaimed and put to some productive use.

(a) Degraded Land

In view of the incessantly increasing population in India more land is needed for agriculture and forestry. Good land is shrinking both in quantity and quality. The various reasons responsible are-unexpected demands besides soil erosion, desertification, waterlogging, salinity, alkali soil and toxic effects of agrochemicals and industrial effluents.

It is essential to reclaim and develop degraded land such as ravines, gulies waterlogged, alkaline, saline and riverine lands, lateritic soils, land infested with unwanted shrubs  and bushes, stony and gravelly land etc.

(b) Mined Areas

It is opined that in our-country most mining work has been unscientific with no environmental protection. As a result, large tracts have lost productivity. Besides water and air pollution there is despoliation of land and deforestation. Mined areas should be reclaimed for agriculture, forestry,  fisheries  and  recreation  through  standard  methods  of  reclamation. A number of mining operations  are  going  on  affecting  forest  and  cultivated  land  areas mainly in U.P.  Bihar,  M.P.,  Orissa  and  Andhra  Pradesh.  Urbanisation  and  allied  processes like large-scale use of land for townships, communication, excavation and transport affected the socio-economy and ecology of these areas. Consequently, Ecological problems have developed in coal mine areas in Ranchi, Hazaribagh (Bihar), Bina Project (U.P.) and Singrauli complex at Gorbi (U.P.) and Jayanto (M.P.) Ranchi several hundred of sq. km.  of  land  has become wasteland. In Singrauli complex forests and hillocks are damaged by the construction

of high power transmission lines, Roads and rail tracks. Besides, establishment of cement factories, super thermal power stations around coalmines have resulted into environmental degradation to a great extent.

Successful results are at hand. At present two successful cases of reclamation of mined areas in India are as under:

(1) Neyvely Lignite Corporation Ltd., in Tamil Nadu and

(2) Stone Quarries of Sayaji Iron work in Gujarat.

It is essential to revise the Mines and Minerals (Regulations and development) Act, 1957 (MMRD Act) to bring in it the environmental concerns.

(ii) National Wastelands Development Board

The Board was founded in 1985 to  formulate  action  plans  to  arrest  land  degradation and deforestation. The board is entrusted with the following function:

(1) Regeneration of  degraded  forest  areas  and

(2) Reclamation of ravines, user lands, arid tracts, mine spoils etc.

In the initial four years the Wastelands Development Programme laid emphasis on tree planting. In 1989-90 the programme was suitably restructured.

At present  the  Board  is  performing  the  following  functions:

(1) To check  land  degradation,

(2) To bring wastelands into sustainable use,

(3) To increase biomass availability,

(4) To restore ecological balance.

The functioning of the Board during the last seven years has demonstrated that it is possible collectively to meet the challenge of regenerating India’s wastelands.

The Ministry of Environment and Forests initially selected five districts in the country for going to the ground and drawing up action plans for reforestation and amendment of degraded land there.

Success is achieved in the preparation of maps on 146 districts in the country representing every state for identifying the wastelands and plantations. The five districts  chosen  were Almora (U.P.) Purulia (W. Bengal), Bellary (Karnatak), Durgapur (Rajasthan) and Sundargarh (Orissa).

In 1992 the NWDB was merged with the Ministry of Rural Development and a new Department of Wasteland Development was established under a Minister of State.

Non-government organization (NGOS):-

Several NGOS have also been putting endeavours in the direction of wastelands management. Some are as under:

(1) The Indian Farmers Fertilizer Cooperative Ltd.  (IFFCI)  is  providing  funds  for schemes of wasteland development in Udaipur and other areas of Rajasthan. “IFFCO Farm Forestry Project” has  been  taken  up  by  IFFCO  in  ten  states  to  cover  a  total of 50,000 hectare of wasteland.

(2) Ramakrishna Mission Ashram, Bihar, insisting upon afforestation in tribal areas.

(3) Forestry project of Chandmura, W.Bengal, insisting upon regeneration of degraded land through social forestry as people’s involvement.

(4) Comprehensive Social Service Society, Andhra Pradesh insisting upon afforestation by women’s involvement.

(5) Brukhy ‘O’ Jeever Bandho Parishads, Orissa, insisting upon environmental conservation.

(6) Magra Mewar Vikas Sanstha, Rajasthan, insisting upon ecological restoration.

(7) Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad, Kerala, for mobilising people’s power by rousing awakening in them.

(8) People Nurseries Scheme and Tree Grower’s Co-operative besides National Dairy Development Board are helping in wasteland management.

(9) A great number of registered non-profit organizations, are registered with the societies, Cooperatives, companies, trusts etc. and Recognised schools. Colleges and universities that are financially supported by Govt. of India. For the purpose have undertaken the wasteland management programmes.

Some programmes aiming wasteland management are as under:

(1) Green Haryana Programme,

(2) Green Delhi  Campaign,

(3) Green Rajasthan Programme,

(4) Smriti Vans etc.

(5) Eco-Task Forces in different states.

(6) A national fund for afforestation and Wastelands Development is set up. Donors to this fund are eligible for 100% income tax exemption.

LAND DEGRADATION AND MAN INDUCED LAND SLIDES

Land Degradation

Soil is no less than our mother as it is indispensable for our survival. It is formed over long periods of time. But man is degrading  it  with  his  misdeeds.  Many  of  our  once-fertile soils have already been converted to agriculturally unfit alkaline or saline land or marshlands. It is estimated that there is more than 25 million hectares of such barren lands throughout the world.

Our soil constitutes a biogeochemical shell around land and shallow waters. It is a product of the interactions of living matter with rocks. It profoundly affects the growth of living organism (especially plants) however; in turn it is influenced by the activities of the latter.

Reasons for Land Degradation

Various factors have led to Land Degradation. Some of them are as under:

1. Rapid increase in industrialization, urbanization and other activities or civilized man have exercised a tremendous impact on the soils and on other components of the biosphere.

2. Unplanned destruction of forests and forest litter has brought about serious changes both in land and water.

3. The washing off of fine soil particles from deforested areas has caused great soil erosion.

4. Soil erosion has resulted in a great increase in run-off, pollution turbidity and mineralization in rivers and extensive silting in water reservoirs,

MAN INDUCED LAND SLIDE

Forests are important regulators of ecosystems. They exert  significant  effects  on  the water budget and the hydrological cycle.

In areas of heavy rainfall, the tree crowns and other  forest  plants  intercept  a  large fraction of the rain. Some of the water reaching the forest  floor  penetrates  into  the  soil through the litter and the loose soil surface, and there is little  surface  run-off.  The  seeped water reaches the streams and rivers only after some period of time. This time lag is and important device to regulate the water discharge into rivers. It is in this way, that flooding is prevented or minimized. Thus, in dry periods also the forest soil continues to  feed  the streams and rivers.

Destruction of  forest  changes  the  above  situation  immediately.  The  hydrological  cycle is disrupted and the water level of the rivers cannot be  properly  regulated.  This  causes flooding during the raining season. Simultaneously, in dry period, the rivers tend to dry up, affecting irrigation and power generation. In deforested areas, erosion of soil occurs fairly briskly, especially on steep slopes. This removes the fertile top soil and also loads the rivers with much suspended  matter.  Deforestation  thus  greatly  increases  the  quantity  of  detritus in many tropical  rivers.

Large-scale forest destruction often produces grave climatic consequences, especially desertification and aridity. These result from reduction of evaporation as the tree canopies no longer intercept rain water, and also because rapid run-off of precipitation occurs in the absence of the forest cover.

Some erosion of  soil  results  from  the  deforestation  as  seen  in  the  Himalayas.  Erosion in the Himalayan ranges is caused both by natural climatic influences ranging from tropical to arctic, and by man-made causes. Forest cover greatly reduces erosion of the fast increasing population pressure; the Himalayas are being deprived gradually of their forests. Bare, unprotected soil cannot store large quantities of water. The soil are compacted by heavy rain and then washed away. The results are as under:

(1) The rivers are flooded during rainy season,

(2) Springs dry up during the dry season in some localities,

(3) Rivers meander in the plains at the foothills,

(4) Large amounts  of  gravel  and  sedimentary  material  tend  to  accumulate.

In view of the nutrients depletion, modern agricultural practices  seek  to  counter  the above processes of soil destruction by advocating increased use and application of chemical fertilizers, However, this practice is not  a  healthy  one.  It  is  an  ecologically  dangerous practice. Instead there is necessity of preventive and remedial measures as under:

(1) Recourse to  contour  and  strip  farming,

(2) A network of forest plantations in clumps and rows,

(3) A regular sowing of grass in crop rotations,

(4) The preferential use of organic, rather than inorganic manures,

(5) The use of organic manure as it tends to preserve the quality of soil and also their humus content.

At present, soil scientists are trying to solve problem of safeguarding soils from exogenous chemical substances, mineral fertilizers, pesticides, etc. heavy doses of the wrong kind of inorganic fertilizer have often resulted in creating excessive acidity or alkalinity in the soil.

Besides the indiscriminate use of pesticides and fungicides has caused adverse effects on soils in addition to their well-known effects on the activities of soil microbes, flora and fauna. Various kinds of air pollutants and noxious gases also have a harmful effect on soils.

Suggestions

It should be kept in mind that the soil is a living community of micro organisms-algae, fungi, protozoa and metazoan. It contains many inorganic and organic substances which are products of weathering and decay of organic matter. Microbes normally oxidize these substances to inorganic oxides, However, when some organic compounds reach oxygen-defi ient ground water may remain incompletely oxidized and add to pollution.

At present, so many countries of Africa lying along the south of the Sahara desert are suffering the severe effects of prolonged drought caused by rain failure or inadequacy. It is also discovered that the desert is advancing southwards by several kilometers each year. Local inhabitants plant millet in tiny plots of topsoil fenced in with straw matting to avoid the sand; they water the wilting shoots by bringing cupfuls of the precious and scarce water, often from long distance. Despite such frugality, however, the resource could be better managed.

Two Evil Practices

(1) A practice which leads to resource squandering and wastage, is to set bush fires to drive out and exterminate desert  rats.  Such  practices  are  harmful  and  result  in great impoverishment of the top soil.

(2) Another similar practice is to chop sown the scarce tree wealth for firewood and to let cattle eat up Acacia branches

It should be, kept in mind that Acacia  and  other  similar  plants  are  very  useful  since they help check the advance of desert by the following processes:-

(1) By breaking the winds,

(2) By humus formation,

(3) By binding  soil  by  means  of  deep  penetrating  roots,

(4) By trapping the scarce rainwater.

It should be remembered that by controlling  excessive  destruction  of  grazing  of  trees and planting many more trees or bushes much of the land could be successfully conserved and reclaimed in due course of time.

SOIL EROSION: MEANING, FACTORS

The top layer of the soil is the vital component as it includes all the nutrients required by plants. Hence the top layer of soil is, called to be the feeding zone of plants. This fertile top soil is most  valuable  natural  resource.  It  usually  lies  at  most  places  at  a  depth  of  15- 20 cm. over the face of the land. Soil is not a dead inert matter of minerals. Instead healthy soil is indeed alive and dynamic consisting of microorganisms as  bacteria,  fungi,  algae, protozoa, worms  and  insects.

The soil erosion is not a new thing. It is a  natural  process  and  is  as  old  as  the  earth itself, yet today soil erosion problems far exceed natural formation of soil. It should be kept in mind that it takes approximately 500 to 1000 years for an inch of the top layer to build up. But in several ways this fertile, topsoil is lost and wasted. This loss  of  top  soil  or disturbance of the soil structure is given the name soil erosion. Some views on soil erosion are as under:

(1) Odum (1966) included soil erosion as a part of soil pollution,

(2) Rama Rao (1962) called soil erosion as creeping death of the soil.

Nature of the Problem

The problem of soil erosion is throughout the world. In U.S.A. over 77 million acres of land has become seriously eroded. It is reported that after the rain begins the cream of soil is skimmed off with every spell of showers.

The gravity of the problem of soil erosion may become evident from the face that of all potentially arable land, only about 44 per cent is under cultivation. The rest i.e. 56 per cent is unsuitable for farming due to inherent soil  problems  and  man  induced  problems.  Only about 2.5 million sq. km. Arable land is irrigated at great cost and with many side effects. Massive irrigation is harmful to fertility due to salinisation. Thus,  in  a  short  time, approximately 600 million hectares of potential farmland will be lost to  soil  erosion, salinisation, and waterlogging. By that time the world population will reach 8 billion. Even if another 300 million hectares of the land,  which  is  at  present,  lying  unused  is  brought under farming, the net result will be that the area of farmland per person will dwindle from

0.31 to 0.15 hectares.

It is observed that soil loss is maximum in region with high population densities. Continuous cultivation of same crop also adds to soil loss. At present the rate of soil erosion is over 2500 million tones per year i.e. over half a ton of soil every man, woman and child on the planet. Certainly we cannot afford such a loss. Soil erosion can be called one of the most difficult problems which the present day world is facing particularly in country as ours. The Indian subcontinent is faced with severe silting problems in Bhakra, Rihand and other multipurpose dams. It is estimated that the life of Bhakra dam is reduced by 250 years due to lack of proper attention towards silt prevention at Govind Sagar Lake, the main reservoir of the dam. It is quite formidable to think that owing to alarming rate at which silt is accumulating, it may not last for more than 150 years although it was designed originally to last for 400 years). The Border Road organization while constructing roads along the Sutlej also failed to take adequate steps to prevent debris and soil from entering the river. The Spiti River discharges a considerable amount of silt in the Sutlej. In the absence of any vegetation in Spiti valley, soil erosion is inevitable and the rocks from nude mountains

crumble under the flow of water. In the eastern hills of Nepal about 38 per cent of the land area has fields on the topsoil whereof has been washed away depriving it of its fertility.

On making a comparative study of the sediment loads from major rivers of the world it is seen that yellow River  in  China  carried  1.6  billion  tons  of  soil  to  ocean  each  year.  At the same time,  the  Ganges  carries  nearly  1.5  billion  tons  and  Mississippi,  the  largest  river of the USA carries  only  about  0.36  billion  tons  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  startling  point is that both the Ganges and the Mississippi have almost same discharge .

Fig. 2.5

Table 2.8 : Sediment load of some major rivers (Brown and Wolf, 1984)

River

Country

Annual sediment  load  (Million  metric  tons)

Yellow

China

1,600

Ganges

India

1,455

Amazon

Several

363

Mississippi

USA

300

Irrawaddy

Burma

299

Kosi

India

172

Mekong

Several

170

Nile

Several

111

Table 2.9 : Estimates of excessive erosion of top soil from world cropland (Brown and Wolf, 1984)

Country

Total cropland (Million acres)

Excessive loss (Million tons)

USA

421

1700

USSR

620

2500

India

346

4700

China

245

4300

Total

1632

13200

Rest of  World

1506

3138

Grand total

12200

25400

It is evident from the table that the loss of cropland soil is maximum in India as it is 18.5% of the total soil loss at global level. The situation is grave because India has only 2.4% of the land area of the world. In USSR it is 9.80% whereas in USA only 6.70% (Fig. 2.6).

Kinds of Soil Erosion

There are various types of soil erosion. However, on the basis of the rate at which soil loss takes place, there are two main types of soil erosion:

(1) Normal or geologic erosion

This type of soil erosion occurs under normal natural conditions by itself without any interference of man.  It  is  a  very  slow  process,  and  equilibrium  between  loss  and  build  up is lost, only when there is some major disturbance by a foreign agent.

(2) Accelerated soil erosion

This type of removal of soil is very rapid and never keeps pace with the soil formation.

This is  generally  caused  by  an  interference  of  an  agency  like  man  and  other  animals.

Agents of Soil Erosion

Fig. 2.6

The various  agents  that  bring  about  soil  erosion  are  as  under:-

Water Erosion

Water removes the soil by falling on as rain drops, a well as by its surface flow action, It may be of three types:

(i) Sheet erosion

Here the removed soil is like a thin covering from large area. This sheet is more or less uniform.

(ii) Rill erosion

If sheet erosion occurs with full force, the run off water moves rapidly  over  the  soil surface. It cuts well-defined finger-shaped groove like structures, It appears as thin channels or streams. These are known as rill erosions.

(iii) Gully erosion

This results due to the convergence of several rills or thin channels formed during rill erosion towards the steep slope. When they join together, they form wider channels of water, known as gullies. In case of further rains these gullies may become still wider and deeper.

Wind Erosion

Soil erosion by wind is common in dry (arid) regions Two characteristics of such region

are:

(a) The soil is chiefly sandy

(b) The vegetation is  very poor or even absent.

In India  erosion  by  wind  affects  approximately  50  million  hectares  of  land,  most  of

which is in Rajasthan. The wind erosion also is triggered by the destruction  of  natural vegetation cover of land by overfelling and overgrazing. When the top soil is laid bare to the fury of strong gales it begins to be blown off in the form of dust storm and sand storm. The high velocity winds blow away the soil particles. This may be of the following types:

(a) Saltation

Saltation takes place in the arid regions where:

(1) Rainfall is low,

(2) Drainages is poor,

(3) High temperatures prevail,

(4) Water evaporates quickly leaving behind the salts.

The salts are normally chlorides, sulphates, carbonates and nitrates of potassium, magnesium and sodium, and chlorides and nitrates of  calcium.  The  major  portion  of  such salty soil is carried by wind in the form of small leaps. These leaps are created  by  direct pressure of wind on small particles of soil.

(b) Suspension

The wind throws away smallest soil particles into air, these particles move as fine dust with the wind. By this way soils are transported to long distances.

(c) Surface creep

The heavier particles of soil which the wind  cannot  easily  throw  up  are  pushed  or spread along the surface by wind.

Landslides or slip erosion

The hydraulic pressure which is caused by heavy rains, increases the weight of the rocks at cliffs. As a result they come under the gravitational force and finally slip or fall off. Sometimes the whole hillock may slide down.

Stream bank erosion

The rivers during floods splash their water against the banks. In this way the water cuts through them. Particularly at curves, water strikes with great speed and the bank caves in alongside. This type of erosion is also known as riparian erosion.

FRIGHTENING POSITION OF SOIL EROSION IN INDIA

According to the Tiwari Committee, of the total land of 304  million  hectares  of  India, about 175 million hectares are exposed to serious environmental threat. This area is suffering from degradation of various kinds. The main causes are water and wind erosion besides

water logging. Water and wind erosion alone has affected 150 million hectares of fertile land. Our entire cultivated area is only 160 million hectares. In this way, it becomes clear that our degraded land is more than all our arable land put together.

It is evident from the report of NCEPC that India was losing more than 6,000 million tones of top soil per year in 1972 which in terms of major nutrients-N.P.K. alone represented an annual loss of Rs. 700 crore. Today the loss is many times more. It is our duty to identify the areas of maximum concern, and the means to check damage in these areas.

SOME EFFECTS OF SOIL EROSION

Every year in India, water erosion alone takes away more than 6,000 tonnes of top soil, containing more than Rs. 1000 crores worth of nuitrients. Its evil effects are as under:

1. This erosion  causes  the  rapid  siltation  of  tanks  and  reservoirs.

2. Silt is choking our estuaries and harbours.

3. Eroded soil is deposited on riverbeds, raising their levels and leading to devastating floods, which cause Rs. 2,000 crores of damage each year.

4. The land area prone to floods has doubled from 20 million hectares in 1971 to 40 million ha. In 1980.

5. Denuded land cannot soak up water like wooded land, so and increasing amount of rainwater is thus running waste into the sea, causing silting and flooding in the process.

As a result there is much less water stored in underground aquifers, which are vital to maintain river flower in the dry season and provide water for tubewell irrigation.

Position in Kerala

Rains have been eroding Kerala coast. During monsoon there occurs extensive damage due to sea erosion. The worst affected areas are as under:

(1) Poonthura, Panathura and Kotaqpuram in Trivandrum Distt.

(2) Edava, Thanni and Eravipuram in Quilon Distt.

(3) Thikkunnapuzha, Arattupuzha, Punnapra, Thumboli, Anthakara Azhi and Palithodu in Aleppey Distt.

(4) Kannamali, Puthenthodu, Cheria, Kadavu and Nayarambalam in Ernakulum Distt.

And

(5) Kadapuram, Eriyad, Perinjanam, Kaipamangalam and Engandiyoor in Trichur Distt.

DESERTIFICATION: MEANING CONCEPT CAUSES

Meaning of Desertification: Desertification can be defined as a process of degradations of the environment, that usually is a product of climate and human activity and involves the spread of extension of desert-like conditions in a hitherto fertile area.

In this way Desertification process is leading to desert formation, It may be either due to a natural phenomenon linked to climatic change or due to abusive land use. However, the improper land use practices besides soil erosion greatly lead to climatic change. Removal of

vegetal cover brings about marked changes in the local climate of the area. In this way deforestation and overgrazing etc. bring about changes in rainfall, temperature, wind velocity etc. These lead to desertification of the area. Desertification often starts as patchy destruction of productive land. In margins of the zones that are not humid, increased dust particles in atmosphere lead to desertification and drought. In case droughts continue to  occur  over  a series of years, even the humid zones are in danger  of  getting  progressively  drier.  As  the forest diminishes, there is steady rise in the atmospheric temperature and the threat of desertification becomes imminent.

Causes of Desertification

(1) Man Made

Most of the vegetation in arid and semi-arid regions is threatened with man-made desertification, a result of excessive, indiscriminate, and archaic land-use practices.

(2) Forest Grazing

Forest grazing is the most serious cause of desertification in arid and semi-arid areas.

(3) Shifting cultivation

Shifting cultivation is likewise important in the humid tropics and N.E. Himalayas.

(4) Increasing Population

Increasing population pressure has greatly accentuated the adverse impacts of the above causes.

Position of Desertification

Desertification used to be an issue of considerable concern during the 1970s and 1980. However, much credence is now not given to the theory of deserts advancing and swallowing up adjacent savanna landscapes. According to UNEP (1984), in 1983 it was estimated that 17 per cent of the world’s arid, semi-arid and sub-humid regions had suffered some loss of productivity land degradation resulting from removal of the vegetation cover is a serious problem throughtout the world’s savannas. Loss of biodiversity is also a serious problem in savannas. In areas of high domestic grazing pressure, loss of animal biodiversity is aggravated by a reduction in the number of forage plants available for wildlife.

Concept of Desertification

Desertification is usually defined as an irreversible change in a land resource. Losses are considered irreversible if recovery would take more than a decade. There forms of desertification can be identified.

1. Loss of economic potential to produce  goods  and  services  of  direct  human-use value;

2. Loss of ecological  functions necessary  to maintain  ecosystem processes;

3. Loss of biodiversity at the ecosystem, species, or genetic level. According to Nelson (1988):

4. A permanent national land monitoring systems is needed to identify emerging and difficult-to-reverse forms of degradation.

5. Research should focus on management technology and the present socio-economic systems.

6. Policy proposals must take into account complexity and local variability.

7. In the absence of any global or regional solutions to most savanna and arid land degradation problems, progress will depend upon small pilot projects, community experimentation and within-country expertise.

8. It is clear from the failure and high cost of conventional projects that more progress is likely through attention to enabling incentives that promote spontaneous response across the entire community. The main policy areas are land tenure, taxation and marketing.

9. Many successful strategies will consist of a strong spatial dimension and involve movement across national and ecological boundaries.

Monitoring and assessment are vital for the development of an action programme to stop the process of desertification. A unified mapping methodology is a prerequisite for this purpose.

Causes of Desertification

Main causes  of  desertification  are  as  under:

(1) The population explosion in man and livestock

It has led to enhanced requirement of timber and fuelwood. Besides, increasing number of livestock causes degradation of forests and the consequent devastation. It is observed that the most accessible forest areas are heavily grazed. For instance, there are  nearly  1200 thousand sheep and goats in Alpine areas of U.P. Besides is there visit about 25,000 migratory graziers. In addition there are about 5-7,000 buffaloes owned  by  Gujarat.  In  absence  of suitable checks growing in forestry stock was expected to decrease from 13.79 m3/  head  in 1981 to 2.60m3/ head in 2001; It is estimated that reduction in annual availability of grass will be from 2.60 t/cattle unit in 1981 to 0.90t/cattle unit in 2001.

(2) Shifting Agriculture

The increase in shifting (jhum) cultivation in North East and Orissa has also laid large forest tracts bare. There has been shortening of jhum  cycle  to  six  years  only  (in  some districts, even 2.3 years only), It provides not enough time for natural repair of damaged ecoststemk.

(3) Revenue Generation

Maximum has been extracted from the trees by Govt. and private owners. In the face of agriculturalisation, urbanization and industrialization, preservation of forests could be given a very low priority. During 1951 to 1976 India lost about 4.2 million hectors of forests for such activities.

(4) Road Construction

The construction of hill roads (about 30,000 km long) is a major cause of deforestation.

Road construction  caused  desertification  in  the  following  way:

(1) It affected the stability of hill slopes,

(2) It damaged the protective vegetation over both above and below roads,

(3) It resulted in debris covering forests vegetation, orchards and agriculture fields,

(4) It blocked natural drainage,

(5) It polluted streams;

(6) It delayed vehicular traffic,

(7) It caused  damage  to  human  life  and  property.

(5) Industries and Mining

These have a serious impact in forest areas. Large areas have been clear-felled and laid barren consequent to open cast mining of iron ore, mica, coal, manganese, limestone etc.

Environmental impact of mining includes loss of production for the following reasons:

(1) The forests, agriculture turned into pastures,

(2) The loss of top soil,

(3) The surface water pollution,

(4) The lowering  of  ground  water  table,

(5) Ore transport hazards such as damage to vegetation, soil drainage, water quality and property, sediment production and discharge, fire hazards and air pollution.

(6) Development Projects

There are hasty approaches to formulation of developmental projects particularly hydro- electric besides those on tourism, road building and mining.

(7) Commercial Demand

In comparison of commercial demand supply fell short and led to decimation of forests, particularly the wood. Consequently there has been unlimited exploitation of timber for commercial use.

(8) Over grazing

The goat is considered to be the most serious agent of forest grazing. The goat has been aptly called “the razor of forests” (Maydell, 1980). In the topics and subtopics, the stock of goats is above 300  million.  Destruction  primarily  affects  the  shrub  and  tree  vegetation where goats prevent regeneration and damage established plant. When the vegetation cover is destroyed, it leads to soil erosion and irreversible destruction of ecosystem.

Goats are particularly destructive to trees and shrubs because they eat virtually all parts of forest plants including young shoots, twigs, fruits and bark. In the thickly vegetated moist forests, goat grazing does not cause serious damage, but in the arid zones where vegetation is already sparse, the goats become a serious menace.

There occur different types of desertification in various continents and ecosystems. Two main objectives for mapping desertification have been identified as under:

(1) To assist decision-makers to understand the various dimensions of desertification,

(2) To assist scientists to make the best choice in selecting strategies for desertification control, to reduce the impact of land degradation. Mapping and landscape dynamics simulation in arid regions prone to desertification is also being undertaken.

Desert Development Programme:- The objectives of the programme include controlling the process of desertification, mitigate the effects of drought in desert areas, restoration of ecological balance in affected areas and raising productivity of land, water, livestock and human resources in these areas. The objectives are sought to be achieved through activities such as afforestation with special emphasis on sand dune stabilization, shelterbelt plantation and grassland development, soil and moisture conservation and water resources development. The programme covers 131 blocks of 21 districts in five states. It also covers cold arid areas of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. The area covered under this programme is about 3.62 lakh sq. km. and the population in the area covered is about 150 lakh. This programme is implemented with 100 per cent Central Financial Assistance. In 1989-90, allocations were made at the rate of Rs. 24 lakhs per 1000 sq. km., the ceiling per district hence will be Rs. 500 lakh. For cold desert areas, a lumpsum provision is made, the rate being Rs. 100 lakh per district per year for Himachal Pradesh and Rs. 150 lakh per district per year for Jammu and Kashmir.

Since its inception, Rs. 291.33 crore was spent under the programme. During the Seventh Plan Period, Rs. 194.04 crore has been spent under this programme.

INDIVIDUAL’S ROLE IN CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

Meaning of Conservation

Conservation broadly means sound land or water use planning. It is concerned with the maintenance of natural systems and with their moderate, systematic, planned and regulated utilization and exploitation for the long-term benefit of mankind.

Conservation has been defined as “As management of the benefit of all life including humankind of the biosphere so that it may yield sustainable benefit to the present generation which maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of the future generations.”

Need for Conservation

As expanding human population resulted into expanding needs of man, man started utilizing natural resources at a much larger scale with scientific progress and technological development. Continuous increase in population caused and increasing demand for resources. It created a situation when the non-renewable resources are likely to come to an end after some time. In fact, we would be using all those resources, which  are,  in  real  sense,  the property future generation. As such, there must be some sort of  balance  between  the population growth and the utilization of natural resources.

It is apparent to all of us that, the non-availability of resources leads to their prices- rise which has an adverse affect on the economics of countries. During 1980s the world experienced a state of imbalance between the growth rates of food production and economic development suffered setbacks. We are facing contrary positions.

In some areas, there is not enough water for agriculture and industry. On the country to it in other areas there are problems of waterlogging due  to  over-irrigation.  In  some countries much of underground water is being utilized for  food  grain  production.  It  is resulting in  lowering  of water  table  in  northern China.

As a consequence of increasing  tampering  of  nature  by  man,  natural  reserves  are greatly dwindling and  are  becoming  the  main  sanctuaries  for  wild  plants  and  animals.  It has been proposed that  adequate  examples  of  all-important  and  representative  biospheres be protected and conserved. A worldwide network of such protected ecosystems is extremely important for ecological research pertinent to national use and conservation of the biosphere.

Objectives of conservation

(1) To maintain  essential  ecological  processes  and  life  support  system;

(2) To preserve biological dividers;

(3) To ensure that any utilization of species and ecosystems is sutainable.

Categories of Conservation

There are two categories of conservation as under:

(1) In Situ Conservation

This is the conservation of genetic resources through their maintenanced within natural or even human-made ecosystems in which they occur. It includes a system of protected areas of different categories, managed with different objectives to bring benefit to the society. For example National parks, Sociometries, Nature Reserves, Natural Monuments, Cultural Landscapes, Biosphere Reserve etc. Evidently in situ conservation is not practicable for domesticates.

(2) Ex Situ Conservation

This is conservation outside habitats by perpetuating sample population in genetic resource centers, zoos, botanical gardens, culture collections etc. or in the form of gene pools and gamete storage for fish; germplasm banks for seeds, pollen, semen, ova, cells etc. Plants are more readily maintained than animals. In this kind of conservation vital role is played by seed banks, botanical gardens, pollen storage, tissue culture and genetic engineering.

Under Ministries of Environment and Forests, Agriculture, and Science and Technology a large number of institutions are involved in conservation and utilization of natural resources. Between them, they are dealing with in situ conservation including sphere reserves, national parks. Wildlife sanctuaries and ex situ conservation such as field gene banks, seed and other banks, and utilization involving gene and drug prospecting respectively.

Individuals Role in Conservation of Natural Resources

An individual  can  play  his  role  in  the  conservation  of  natural  resources  as  under:

1. Soil Conservation

An  individual  can  play  a  vital  role  in  conservation  of  soil. Main principles of soil conservation are as under:

(1) To Protect soil from impact of raindrops.

(2) To Slow down the water movement if it flowed along the slope.

(3) To slow down the water from moving down the slope in narrow path.

(4) To encourage more water to enter the soil.

(5) To increase the size of soil particle.

(6) To reduce the wind velocity near the ground by growing vegetation cover, ridging the land etc.,

(7) To grow the strips of stubble or the vegetation cover which might catch and hold the moving particles of soil.

Keeping in view the above said principles an individual may adopt several methods to prevent the loss of soil during its erosion.

Methods of Conservation

Various methods of soil conservation may be broadly arranged into the following types:

(1) Biological Methods

Conservation achieved  by  the  use  of  plan  vegetation  cover  the  following:

(i) Agronomic Practices: In areas with normal farming, where vegetation itself is used for soil protection.

(ii) Dry Farming: In areas with low  and  moderate  rainfall,  where  normal  farming  is not possible.

(iii) Agrostological Methods : In areas which are suitable for successful growth of grasses used as soil binders to check soil erosion.

(2) Mechanical Methods

Conservation achieved by supplementing the biological methods with a view to increase the time of concentration of water, to reduce the  velocity  of  water,  or  afford  protection against damage due to run off:

(i) Basin Listing: To construct small basins along the contours.

(ii) Contour Terracing: To  construct  small  basins  along  the  slope  to  intercept  and divert the runoff water.

(3) Other Methods

Conservation achieved by  purely  mechanical  method including construction as under:-

(i) Gully Control: Formation or widening of gullies.

(ii) Stream Bank Protection : To grow vegetation alongside construction of drains stone pitching etc.

(iii) Afforestation: To  check  the  velocity  of  wind  by  tree  plantation  (windbreads).

2. Less exploitation of Resources

We must bear in mind that resource  exploitation  and  pollution  are  two  faces  of  the same coin since exploitation of resources in one place can become environmental degradation either in the same place or in a remote area. We  are  aware  of  the  adverse  effects  on  the ocean harvest, which are often caused by man’s activities on land. Thus, biocides and persistent inorganic pesticdes, which are used to increase crop  yields  on  land,  lead  to  decrease  the yields of fish and other proteins from the oceans. Increasing use of biocides for boosting carbohydrate yields on land is likely to lead to such high increase in their concentration in the oceans as to significantly reduce its productivity.

3. Control over Population Increase

We should aim at striving for an optimum instead of maximum, sutainable population size on Earth, and to arrive at the optimum figure after due consideration of the complex environmental problems. The optimum size permits long-term persistence of the population in equilibrium with its environment. The optimum represents that stage when any further addition of more members would result in deterioration of the quality of like of those already present.

4. To Make An Integrated and Holistic Approach in Tackling Environmental Problem

Environmental strategies and programmes must be based on a thorough analysis of technical and economic factors as well as of social and political dimensions  of  the environmental problem. Such an approach includes an analysis of balance of political forces besides issues  of  livelihood  for disadvantaged  groups.

5. Increase in the Plant Cover

The plant cover is essential for the maintenance of the soil in a balanced and healthy state. Over-exploitation of forests and deforestation practices lead to soil erosion with  the topsoil washing down the stream. It results  in  the  ruin  of  soil  fertility.  We  are  annually losing millions of tons of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium through soil  erosion.  Nearly 5,000 million tons of soil are being annually lost by water erosion, and the loss of valuable nutrients in this way often reaches colossal proportions. It  is  estimated  that  thousands  of acres of arable soil are also being rendered unfit for farming due to salinity and alkalinity problems. Here it may be mentioned that the Green Revolution has further generated some newer problems of soil fertility depletion, mineral nutrient imbalances, agricultural residues, etc. In some parts of Punjab for instance, paddy straw of the high-yielding rice variety IR- 8 is found responsible for the deterioration in health of cattle because of its abnormally high content of certain mineral salts.

6. Proper Use of Water

Agricultural use of soil is linked with the use of water which is required for irrigation. Much progress has been achieved in the large-scale storage of water in Dams and Reservoirs for agricultural use and for generation of hydroelectric power, but economy in its use is paid no heed. We must remember that policies directed toward the maximum economic yield from a fixed amount of water will result in maximum conservation and also that planning for the maximum use of water ought to be correlated with planning for the optimum use of land resources.

7. Proper Irrigation for Soil Conservation

The land resources of India have been increasingly degraded. Excessive unplanned canal irrigation without proper drainage and water management has resulted in seepage, water logging and salinity. Seven million hectares are already affected and another ten million are threatened. About 150 million hectare area suffers from wind and water erosion. This results in the loss of valuable topsoil. Rising water tables is also responsible for increasing salinization of farm lands. Soil erosion causes premature silting up on many reservoirs and tanks.

8. Proper Use of Wood

Our  country  is  gifted  with  a  fairly  considerable  potentiality  for  increasing  the  supply of such renewable resources as forests and forest products that could substitute for some of

the scarce non-renewable resources. As such, it is advisable to substitute wood and wood products for the non-renewable fuel and energy sources, as has been commonly practiced in villages since times immemorial. Wood has certain advantages as fuel. As compared to coal, its sulphur content and ash content are very low. The ash which is left, can be used  as  a fertilizer. Wood and vegetable fibres might also some day furnish us certain primary organic chemicals. In our country and other tropical countries wood residues may profitably be converted into liquid and gaseous fuels. This can relieve, to some  extent  the  problem  of scarcity of large-scale exploitable oil and coal resources, which are non-renewable ones.

9. Substitution of Biomass for Petroleum Product

Biomass conversion has unique advantages over other commonly used  energy technologies. Unlike petroleum or coal, biomass resources are renewable. Conversion of municipal and industrial wastes into useful fuels will serve two purposes as with it:

(i) The energy supplies are increased, and

(ii) The environment is cleaned up.

Biomass is amenable to genetic manipulations and is flexible through crop switching. Biomass encompasses wood chips, sawdust, maize stalks, other vegetable matter, municipal and organic wastes.

10. Fuel Alcohol from Biomass

Ethanol and methanol can be used as fuels or may be blended with petrol and used in a spark type internal combustion engine. These alcohols can be produced from biomass and agricultural residues, etc.

11. Use of Solar Energy

Solar thermal systems are the best developed and simplest of the solar technologies. It is proved that Solar energy can be gainfully conserved by suitable architectural designs that gainfully exploit the site and building materials to turn a building into a solar collector. In Active solar thermal systems  the  basic  unit  is  the  solar  collector-  a  panel  commonly  made of aluminium, glass, plastic and copper. When fitted to a roof, these panels  absorb  direct sunlight and transfer heat to a  fluid  that  passes  through  the  collector.  The  fluid  flows through pipes into the building where it is used to heat water or warm the rooms. The solar cell is a device that converts sunlight directly into electricity. Photovoltaics  (solar  cells) generate an electromotive force in a material as a result of its absorbing ionizing radiation.

Solar cells have already proved their usefullness in the space exploration programme. Solar cells successfully developed at the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre in Trombay, Bombay, have been tested in the satellite Bhaskara. They have successfully met part of the power requirement aboard.

EQUITABLE USE OF RESOURCES FOR SUSTAINABLE TO LIFE STYLE

Introduction

Man has a great responsibility to render equitable use of resources capable of inducing significant alternations in the environment either intentionally or inadvertently. He is capable of altering the basic functioning of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and the whole

biosphere. The most essential basic attribute of most environments is that they are muti- dimensional systems of complex relationships in a continuing state of change. It is also generally recognized that the loss of life caused by such calamities as floods, droughts, cyclones and earthquakes, is largely due to the quality of natural environments as well as mankind’s misdeeds.

Cragg (1970) has highlighted the link between conservation and quality of human environment. Cragg advocates a  study  of  the  biogeochemical  cycles  disturbed  by  man.  He has pointed out many hazards arising from the recent marked increases in the CO2 content of the atmosphere and similar decreases in oxygen level of natural water  bodies.  He  has warned against the present evil  practices.  If  precautions  were  not  observed  in  time,  the earth would  not  remain inhabitable.

Cragg has  listed  the  following  basic  arguments  for  conservation:

(a) Maintenance and  perpetuation  of  environmental  quality

(b) Aesthetic considerations;

(c) Food production;

(d) Preservation of  gene  pools  and  germplasms;

(e) Ecological diversity.

Methods for Equitable Use of Resources

The following  methods  may  be  suggested:

1. Equitable Use of Soil

It is due to our misdeeds that many of our once-fertile soils have been converted to agriculturally unfit alkaline or saline lands or marshlands. More than 25 million hectares of such barren lands are now estimated to be distributed throughout the world.

Soil constitutes a biogeochemical shell around land and shallow waters. Recent increases in the pace of industrialization, urbanization and other activities of of civilized man have exerted a tremendous impact not only on the soils but also on other components of the biosphere. Unplanned destruction of forests and forest litter has brought about serious changes both in land and water. The washing-off of fine soil particles from deforested areas has caused considerable soil erosion. There has also been a great increase in run-off, pollution, turbidity and mineralization in rivers and extensive silting in water reservoirs. It is essential to take a recourse to contour and strip farming, a network of forest plantations in clumps and rows, a regular sowing of grass in crop rotations, the preferential use of organic, rather than inorganic, manures, etc. The use of organic manure is especially desirable since it tends to preserve the quality of soil and also their humus content.

Steps should be taken to safeguard soils from exogenous chemical substances, mineral fertilizers, pesticides, etc. Heavy doses of the wrong kind of inorganic fertilizer have often resulted in creating excessive acidity or alkalinity in the soil, and the indiscriminate use of pesticides and fungicides has caused adverse effects  on  soil.  Efforts  should  be  made  to restore the fertility of the fallow lands by use of fertilizers and new technology. The forested land in India is below the scientific norm.  Normally  for  self-contained  and  proper  eco- balance, at least, one-third or the total land area must be under forest and natural vegetation. In India it is as low as 19.3%. We must increase our area under forests.

A part of the land not  in  use  is  classified  as  wasteland.  This  includes  the  arid,  rocky and sandy deserts. Much of the land is being used  in  cities  and  towns  as  residential  land. Cities and towns must grow vertically rather than horizontally now. The land is also needed for industry, commerce, transport and recreation. Since total land is a fixed asset, we must make efforts for integrated land use planning. Land is an important component of the life support system. Mrs. Indira Gandhi in 1972 said, “We  can  no  longer  afford  to  neglect  our most important natural resource. This is  not  simply  an  environmental  problem  but  one which is basic to the future of  our  country.”  In  a  predominantly  agricultural  country  like ours, land comes first.

For proper planning we need authentic figures agreed upon by the concerned departments viz agriculture, forestry, revenue records etc. using modern method as remote sensing. It is observed that good agricultural land is going to industrial estates and for urban development. Thus valuable cropland is lost  to  agriculture  forever.  This  is  not  in  national  interest.  The best land use planning has  been  done  by  Japan,  being  hard  pressed  for  land.  A  strategy must be developed to cure past damage and to save the country from future damage to land. A strategy must be developed to cure past damage and to  save  the  country  from  future damage to land. This can be achieved by following the methods mentioned as under:

(i) To prepare accurate land use data through remote sensing,

(ii) A time bound nation wide survey programme of micro-level land use  planning giving short and long-term scenarios,

(iii) To prepare  land  use  classes,

(iv) To review all existing legislations and to update them and

(v) Management plans for land amelioration are to be prepared. This would lead to a dynamic land-use policy.

2. Proper Management of Water Resources

Water is an integral part of land/soil productivity base. Its misuse can cause soil degradation and soil erosion. Water management is necessary for crop yields and other activities. Primary channel flow originates in  upper  catchments  and  these  watersheds  are very important for future.

3. Watershed Management

In India floods bring much havoc causing loss of life and property each year. Due to floods, the plains have become silted with mud and sand, thus affecting the cultivable land areas. Extinction of civilisation in some coastal areas is mainly due to such natural calamites as flood. Flood damage cost the country Rs. 21 crore in 1951, which increased to Rs. 1,130 crore in 1977. the worst suffering states are Assam, Bihar, Orissa, U.P. and West Bengal. Through modern technology and scientific knowledge steps are to be taken. There is need of a proper understanding of the ecosystem so that changes could be forecast well in time. Thus management of rainfall and resultant runoff, which is essential, can be best based on a natural unit called watershed. A watershed is an area bounded by the divide line of water flow. Thus it may be drainage basin or stream. The Himalayas are one of the most critical watersheds in the world. The cast hydroelectric power potential can be harnessed from Himalayan watersheds if proper control measures are taken. They are inclusive of soil and

land use survey, soil conservation in catchments of River Valley  Projects  and  flood  prone rivers, afforestation or social forestry programmes, Drought Prone Area Development Programmes and Desert Development and Control of Shifting Cultivation.

4. Afforestation

Top priority should be given to the forestry. Forests occupy central position in nature. They restore ecological balance of all ecosystems (including desert), maintain biological diversity, act as catchments for soil and water conservation, prevent floods  and  safeguard future of tribals. We should develop massive afforestation programmes  of  indigenous  and exotic fast growing species for production and protection forestry on suitable land including wasteland. A massive social forestry programme is needed to meet demands of local people for fuel, fodder, timber etc. the two major goals for forestry are:

(i) Supply of goods and services to people and industry by a well thought out plan of production,

(ii) Long term ecological security through conservation of forests cover  and  its restoration.

The areas where our water regimes are located i.e. Himalayas and Western and Eastern ghats together with catchment areas; National Parks; Sanctuaries, Sacred Groves; Biosphere Reserves and all ecologically fragile areas should be protected from fuel-starved villagers and fodder-starved cattle. For this, public support must be generated in order to fulfil the real goal of eco-development. Such awareness will be very helpful for supply of goods and services to meet the local villager’s needs. One very good example of public support is the  Chipko Movement of Bishnoi Women in U.P. We, have only about 14% forest cover, and thus need to plant nearly 70 million hectares of additional land. This can be done by:

(i) Intensive plantations,

(ii) Production/captive plantations. These are explained as under:

(I) Intensive plantations: Intensive plantation is planting all the available land from villagers’ fields, to community land, to road/rail sides every available space. Indigenous and/or exotic species can be used for plantations that remove pressure on natural forests. Social/participative/agro-forestry programmes are included in this category.

(II) Production/Captive plantations: Plantations are to be done on fallow land not being used for agriculture; mostly on free grazing lands. A part of such plantations may be used to generate fodder for cattle. Moreover short  rotations  of  indigenous  or exotic species are to be preferred over long duration sal or teak.

The productivity  in  USA  could  be  enhanced  by:

(i) Proper manipulation of silvicultural and nutritional requirements that is use of fertilizers, irrigation, bacterial and mycorrhizal inoculations,

(ii) Disease and pest management,

(iii) Weed control,

(iv) Advanced techniques  in  forest  tree  breeding  for  superior  genetic  strains,

(v) Judicious use  of  tissue  culture  methods.

Social  forestry: This forestry, is for private land. There are two main objectives of social forestry:

(i) Use of public and common land to produce in a decentralized way firewood, fodder and small timber for the local poor men and also to manage soil and water conservation,

(ii) To relieve pressure on conservation forests. This programme is in fact for poor.

Agroforestry: Agroforestry is a system of land use where woody perennials are deliberately used on the same land management units as annual agricultural crops and/or animals, either sequentially or simultaneously, with the aim of obtaining greater outputs on a sustained basis. “Here land is used for agriculture, forestry and animal husbandry. Depending upon the situation we may also have a mix of three basic elements i.e., agriculture, forestry and animal husbandry.

There should be massive afforestation arm/agroforestry programmes. Every village/ town/city must be able to meet firewood, fodder and small timber needs by growing trees and shrubs in the land available in a cooperative system.

5. Proper Management of Drinking Water

This Resource (water) is renewable. However, it is subject to abuse and misuse. Infact, most of our water problems, are not those of quantity or even necessarily of quality, but are rather caused by our way of thinking and attitudes. If man learns to live with man on a cooperative basis, the water problem, like many other ecological problems, could be solved. The replenishable ground water resources in India are sufficient to provide assured irrigation to 40 million hectares. The present level of development is estimated at 25 million hectares,

i.e. about 40 per cent of the total irrigation potential created in the country.

Drinking water becomes more significant in a developing country because it serves as a source of micronutrients that are so essential for good health. Deficiency or excess of the essential trace elements can  cause  disorders.  Drinking  water  is  an  important  source  of intake of trace  elements.