Themes in Indian History
Theme 5
Part-2nd (Max. Marks 25)
PEASANT, ZAMINDARS AND STATE
ShortAnswerTypeQuestions
Q. What are the problems in using the Ain-i-Akbari as a source for reconstructing agrarian history? How do historians deal with this situation?
Ans. Ain-i-Akbari is the 3rd part of book Akbarnama written by Akbar’s court Poet Abul Fazl in 1598. Ain-i-Akbari contains important information for reconstructing the agrarian history of the Mughals. The book is in 5 parts:
1. Manzil Abadi: deals with Imperial establishment and maintenance.
2. Sipah-Abadi: deals with Military and Civil administration.
3. Mulk-Abadi: deals with fiscal information, revenue rates, details of 12 Subas, geographic, topographic, economic, administrative and fiscal divisions.
4. Part 4 gives information about religious, literary, medicinal and philosophical life of Indians.
5. Last Part contains a chapter on wise sayings of Akbar, conclusion and Biographical sketch of Akbar.
But it has some limitations like:
1. Numerous errors in calculations have been detected.
2. Data was not collected uniformly from all provinces.
3. The fiscal data collected from various sources is in detail yet wages and prices have not been incorporated properly.
4. The detailed list of prices and wages has been acquired from the capital Agra and its surrounding regions. It is, therefore, of limited value for the rest of the empire.
Historians have dealt with the situation by supplementing the account of the Ain with the information from the provinces. These include detailed 17th – 18th century’s revenue record from Gujarat, Rajasthan and Maharashtra. These have also been supplemented by records of the East India Company.
Q. To what extent is it possible to characterize agricultural production in the 16th to 17th centuries as subsistence agriculture? Give reasons for your answer.
Ans. During Mughal period, India was basically an agricultural country. More than 85% of population of India was involved in agricultural production and claimed right to the share of produce. Majority of peasants produced just enough to meet their basic needs. Primary purpose of agriculture was to feed the people. Hence, basic crops such as rice, wheat and millets were most frequently produced. Bengal produced two varieties of rice in one year. But the focus on the cultivation of basic crops does not mean that only subsistence agriculture existed in medieval India.
a) The Mughal state encouraged peasants to cultivate varieties of crops which brought revenue especially cotton and sugarcane.
b) Cotton was mainly grown in vast area which was spread over central India and the Deccan plateau, whereas in Bengal sugarcane was mainly produced.
c) Many varieties of cash crops such as oilseeds including mustard and lentils.
d) An average peasant grew both commercial and subsistence crops.
Q. Describe the role played by women in agricultural production?
Ans. Women played an important role in agricultural production. They worked shoulder to shoulder with men in the fields. The men tilled and ploughed the lands while as women sowed, weeded and
threshed the harvest. The women performed important tasks such as spinning yarn, clay for pottery and embroidery. Thus, the peasant women who were skilled artisans worked not only in the fields but even went to their employer’s houses and even to the markets. Among the landed gentry class, women had the right to inherit property. Women, including widows participated in the rural land market, selling property which they had inherited, especially in the Punjab. Both Hindu and Muslim women inherited land. They were free to sell or mortgage their zamindars rights.
Q. Discuss, with examples, the significance of monetary transactions during the period under consideration?
Ans. The political stability provided by the Mughal helped in establishing sound trade relation with Ming (China), Safavid (Iran) and Ottoman (Turkey) empires. The discovery of new lands and sea routes also gave an impetus to Asia’s trade with Europe. As a result enormous amount of silver flowed into India as payment for goods bought from India. Therefore, from the 16th to 18th centuries there was sufficient reserve of silver in India and the silver rupaya was available readily. As villagers established their links in the urban markets, there was a considerable increase in monetary transactions and villages became an important part of monetary market. It was due to the monetary transactions that it became easier to pay daily wages to the laborers in cash and not in kind. This resulted in an unprecedented expansion in the minting of coins and circulation of money allowing the Mughal state to extract taxes and revenue in cash. The govt. servants were paid in cash. Hundi or letter of credit payable by sharoffs agent after a period of time facilitated financial system. Village artisans like black smiths, carpenters etc were compensated by zamindars through daily allowance called as diet money. This reflects cash transaction even at micro level.
Q. Examine the evidence that suggests that land revenue was important for the Mughal fiscal system.
Ans. Agriculture was the mainstay of the economy. Land Revenue collected from peasants was used to pay salaries and to meet different kinds of administrative expense. So it was considered important to establish an administrative apparatus to ensure control over agricultural production.
A. The Mughal state before fixing land revenue first acquired specific information about the extent of agricultural land and their produce.
B. Land revenue collection arrangements consisted of two stages of assessment. These were Jama and Hasil. Cultivators were given the choice to pay either in cash or kind. The state preferred to collect land revenue as cash.
C. Both cultivated and cultivable lands were measured in each province to fix land revenue.
D. The Mughal issued silver rupees of high purity that became a standard coin in India and abroad. It helped India’s trade and revenue.
Q. To what extent do you think caste was a factor in influencing social and economic relations in agrarian society?
Ans. Cultivators were divided on the basis of their caste and other caste like distinctions or caste based distinctions. Abundance of land, labour and mobility of peasants were significant features of agrarian society yet many peasants worked as agricultural laborers (Majurs) or as manacies. Thus, they were not allowed to live in villages like dalits. They resided outside the village and were assigned to do menial tasks and lacked resources. They were poverty stricken.
1. Caste distinctions had also begun in other communities as well. In Muslim communities menials were like halalkhoron (Scavengers), boatmen’s sons (Mallahzada) in Bihar were comparable to slaves. A direct relation existed between caste, poverty and social status.
2. In the 17th century Marwar Rajputs are described as peasants and equated with Jats. They were given an inferior status in the caste hierarchy.
3. Castes like Ahirs, Gujjars and Malis reached on elevated status in the eastern regions because they were able to better command resources due to profits in cattle rearing an d horticulture.
4. The pastoral and fishing castes like the Sadgops and Kaivatas acquired the status of peasants.
5. In mixed caste villages, Panchayats were heterogeneous body representing various communities and castes. However village cum agricultural worker was unlike represented but decisions were binding on all members of village community. Violation of caste norms was punishable with heavy fines and expulsion from community.
6. Archival records of Rajasthan and Maharashtra corroborate several petitions by lower castes against higher castes for redressal to their grievances.
Q7. How were the lives of forest dwellers transformed in the 16th and 17th centuries?
Ans. Vast areas were covered with forests in the various parts of India in the 16th century and 17th century. Forest dwellers were called Jungli. The term “Jungli” was used to describe those whose occupations included activities such as hunting, gathering of forest produce, and shifting cultivation. These activities were performed according to a specific reason in the various regions. For example Bhils who fished in summer and collected forest produce in spring. Such activities enabled the forest tribes to be mobile which was a characteristic feature of their life.
i. As the state required elephants for army, the peshkesh was levied on the forest people for supply of elephants.
ii. The lives of the forest dwellers led to the spread of commercial agriculture. Forest products like honey, bee wax, gum and lac were in huge demand. Gum and lac became major items of overseas exports in the seventeen the century, and earned valuable foreign exchange.
iii. By the 16th century, the transitions from a tribal to monarchial system had taken place. In Ain-i- Akbari, description has been mentioned about the existence of tribal kingdoms in north eastern India. Many tribal chiefs became zamindars, some even became kings. They recruit people from their own tribes in their army.
iv. Description is also made regarding the kings who fought and conquered a number of tribes. New cultural influences also entered in the forested areas.
Q8. Examine the role played by zamindars in Mughal India.
Ans. The zamindars were the people who did not directly participate in the processes of agricultural production and they enjoyed many social and economic privileges because of their superior status in society. The zamindars considered their land as their property (milkiyat). They had control to see, give and mortgage their property. The zamindars rendered certain services (khidmat) for the state. As a result of their service they received and attained higher position in the state.
1. The zamindars had the right to collect revenue on behalf of the state and also received financial compensation for this work.
2. The zamindars had kept strict control over the military resources of the state. They kept a fortress and a well-knit armed unit comprising cavalry, artillery and infantry.
3. The zamindars also played significant role in developing the agricultural land. They helped in the settlements of farmers by lending them money and agricultural instruments.
4. The increase in agricultural produce and the sale and purchase of land. There are also evidences that the zamindars held bazaars. The farmers came to these bazaars to sell their crops.
5. No doubt the zamindars exploited the people but their relations with the farmers depended on their mutual togetherness and hereditary patronage. So, they were able to get peasants in case of the revolt against the state.
Q9. Discuss the ways in which Panchayat and village headmen regulated rural society.
Ans. The village Panchayat consisted of an assembly of elders, they represented different caste and communities except the menial class. In the mixed caste village, the Panchayat was usually a heterogeneous body. The Panchayat represented different castes and communities in the village. The village Panchayat headed by muqaddam also known as mandal. He was elected with consensus of the village elders and remained in the office till he enjoyed the confidence of village elders. Functions of Muqaddam:
a. The main function of Panchayat was to ensure that caste boundaries among the various communities inhabiting the village were upheld.
b. It had also the authority to levy fines and taxes. It can also give punishment like expulsion from the community.
c. Each jati in the village had its own Jati Panchayat wielded considerable power in the society. In Rajasthan, the Jati Panchayats decided civil disputes between members of the different castes.
d. Panchayats decided whether marriages had been performed according to that caste’s norm, etc. In most cases, the state respected the decisions taken by the jati panchayat. The Panchayats were also regarded as the court of appeal that would ensure that the state carried out its moral responsibilities. Petitions were often made to the Panchayat for justice.
e. An accountant or patwari helped in the maintenance of accounts of the Panchayat.
f. The Panchayats got their funds from contribution made by individuals to common financial pool. These funds were used for defraying the costs of entertaining revenue officials who usually visited the village.
Q.” gold and silver after circulating to every part of globe is finally buried in india” according to Bernier. In the light of this statement briefly discuss India’s foreign trade?
Ans: There were brisk internal as well as external trading activities during the period of mughals as is evident from increasing no of trading classes, tri metallic currency, bill of exchange and cash salaries to officials. The mughals brought political stability, peace and order, efficient administration and constructed roads; saria’s which further enhanced trade.
India had trading relations with foreign countries since centuries, however during 16th and 17th centuries her trade flourished because of the discovery of new sea route “Cape of Good Hope” and arrival European Trading Companies. Among them Portuguese were first, followed by Dutch, English, Danes and French. As a result, of which there was favorable balance of trade as a good quantity of precious metals like Gold and Silver flowed in to India.
Exports imports:- India exported coarse cotton textiles, (Calicoes, Muslin, Gujrati Silk) silk, saltpeter, spices (Pepper, Nutmeg, Mace, Clove, and cinnamon), indigo, Sugar, opium etc
Main Imports: India imported Bullion, Silver, Silk (from china), Copper, Lead, Mercury, Wine etc
Q. How land revenue was fixed?
Ans.1. It consisted of two stages - Jama and Hasil. Jama was the amount assessed and Hasil the amount collected.
1. Both cultivated and cultivable land measured in each province.
2. Prepared annual record of the number of cultivators in each village
3. Officials were appointed to measure land revenue.
4. Dewan, who was responsible for supervising the fiscal system of the empire.
Q. Explain the salient features of zabti system?
Ans. The main features of zabti System were: Measurement of land. Classification of land in to Polaj, Parauti, Chachar, Banjar, Calculation of the average produces and average prices for different crops, fixation of state share and commutation into cash and Collection of land revenue.
Q. Who were Raiyat? How many types of Raiyat?
Ans. They were peasants. There are two types of Raiyat - Khud-khasta and Pahi-khasta. Khud-khasta – They were residents of the village in which they held their land.
Pahi-khasta – They were non-resident cultivators who belonged to some other village, but cultivated lands were else were on a contractual basis.
Q. How many seasons of agriculture according to Ain?
Ans. According to Ain-i-Akbari, agriculture was organized around the two major seasonal cycles – The kharif and the rabi. Kharif – rice and jawar. Rabi – wheat and gram
Q. What was Jins-i-Kamil?
Ans. Literally perfect crops or Cash Crops. Example - cotton and sugarcane.
Q. Explain the term Kankut?
Ans. In the Hindi language Kan signifies grain and kut means estimate.
Q. Explain the system of batai or bhaoli system of land revenue collection?
Ans. The crop are reaped and stacked and divided by agreement in the parties. But in this cash several intelligent inspectors are required, otherwise, the evil minded and false are given to deception.
Q. Explain the system of lang batai?
Ans. After cutting the grain they from it in heaps and divide it among themselves, and each takes his share home and turns it to profit.
Key concepts in nutshell
1. Ming dynasty in china, Ottomans in Turkey and Safavids in Iran were contemporary rulers of Mughals
2. Village headman Muqaddam or Mandal was chosen by consensus of village elders ratified by zamindars. He held office as long as he enjoyed the confidence of village elders.
3. Crops like Maize (from Spain and Africa) and vegetables like Tomato, Potato, Chili and fruits like Pine apple and Papaya (from New World) were introduced in 16th & 17th century India.
4. Forest and tribes – Beyond settled villages, livelihood came from the gathering of forest produce, hunting and shifting agriculture, jungles provided a good defense.
5. Milkiyat means property or extensive lands held by zamindars and cultivated with hired labour.
6. Jajmani was system in which artisans and peasant householders entered into mutually negotiated system of remuneration, mostly goods for services.
7. little republics refers to village fraternal partners sharing resources and labour in a collective. It connotes egalitarian or society based on exchange. However in practice we may see Individual ownership and deep inequalities based on caste and gender distinctions.
8. On the basis of fertility, production and continuation of cultivation, the Mughals classified land into Polaj, Parauti, Chachar and Banjar.
9. Dahsala System: Akbar introduced Dahsala system in which land revenue was fixed in cash on the basis of average produce and average prices for different crops for last 10 years.
10. Bhaoli or Bhatai or Galla Bakshi, Kankut, Nasq and zabti were the popular systems of Mughal revenue Asessment.
11. Jama means Assessed revenue and Hasil means actual revenue collected.
12. Khud Kasht (Rayati) or resident cultivators cultivated their own land with the help of other family members and with their own agricultural tools. They pay land revenue at concessional rates.
13. Pahi kasht or Non-resident cultivators cultivated the lands of others in a different village.
14. Muzurain: Those peasants who belonged to same village but did not own land and agricultural tools. They depended on Khud Kasht peasants for their supply
15. Zat in Mughal Mansabdari system means personal status and Pay of a mansabdar.
16. Sawar: means cavalry rank or the number horses maintained by a mansabdar
17. Giovanni Careri, an Italian traveler, who passed through India in 1690, has written how the silver reached India from all parts of the world.
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