THEME – 6
KINGS AND CHRONICLES (MUGHAL COURT 16th -17th CENTURY)
ShortAnswerTypeQuestions
Q1. Describe the process of manuscript production in the Mughal court?
Ans. Manuscript production was done in stages. A number of people were involved in performing a specialized task.
1. The paper makers prepared the pages of the manuscripts.
2. Writers or calligraphers copied the text using different styles like Nastaliq.
3. The glider made brighter the pages, painters explained scenes from the texts.
4. Book binders collected the pages and kept them within beautified cover.
5. Finished manuscript was seen as a precious object, a work of intellectual wealth and beauty, which exemplified the power of patron.
6. People who involved in that process were honored with titles and awards and had high social status.
Q. In what ways would the daily routine and special festivities associated with the Mughal court have conveyed a sense of the power of the emperor?
Ans. The physical arrangement of the court was the most visible and tangible sign of dynastic power, wealth and prestige. At the court, the center piece ‘takht’ was accompanied with canopy. It gave physical form to the function of the sovereign as axis mundi. Spatial proximity of the courtier to the king fixed his status in social hierarchy. Social norms like forms of address, courtier’s speech, and form of salutations reflected the power of the emperor.
Jharokha darshan was introduced by Akbar with the objective of broadening the acceptance of imperial authority and dewan-i-aam (the public audience hall) and dewan-i-khas (where emperor held private audience) reinforced the sense of power of the emperor. Once the emperor sat on the throne, no one was permitted to move from his position or leave without permission. Abdul Fazl described that whenever Akbar held court, beating of a large drum accompanied by divine praise accounted the holding of court.
All these activities established the authority of the Mughal Kingship as the highest station in the hierarchy of objects receiving divine light.
Q. Access the role played by women of the imperial house hold in the Mughal Empire.
Ans. The term “harem” is Persian in origin meaning a sacred place was used to describe the domestic world of the Mughals. The Mughal house hold consisted of the emperor’s wives and concubines, his near and distant relatives and female servants and slaves. Polygamy in Mughals was a way of cementing political relationships and forging alliances. The gift of territory was often accompanied by the gift of a daughter in marriage. This ensured a continuing hierarchical relationship between ruling groups. It was through that link of marriage and the relationships that Mughals were able to form a vast kingship network. In the Mughal household a distinction was maintained between wives who came from royal families (begums), and other wives (aghast) who were not of noble birth. The agha and the aghacha could rise to the position of a begum depending on the husband will and provided that he did not already have four wives. Love and motherhood played important roles in elevating such women to the status of legally wedded wives.
Q. What were the concerns that shaped Mughal policies and attitudes towards regions outside the subcontinent?
Ans. (A) the Safavids and Qandhar: The political and diplomatic relations between the Mughal kings and the neighboring countries of Iran and Turan depended on the control of the frontiers defined by the Hindukush Mountains that separated Afghanistan from the regions of Iran and Central Asia. A Constant aim of Mughal policy was to ward off this potential danger by controlling strategic outposts notably Kabul and Qandahar. The fortress town Qandahar had initially been in the possession of Hamayun, reconquered in 1595 by Akbar. The Safavids continued to stake claims to Qandahar. Jahangir sent a diplomatic envoy to the court of Shah Abbas in 1613 to plead the Mughal case for retaining Qandahar. The mission has failed to achieve its objectives. Persian army besieged Qandahar in 1622. The Mughal garrison was defeated and had to surrender the fortress and the city to the safavids.
(B) The Ottomans: pilgrimage and trade:
The relationship between the Mughals and the Ottomans ensured free movement for merchants
and pilgrims in the territories under ottoman control. This was especially true for the Hijaz, that part of Ottoman Arabia where the important pilgrim centres of Mecca and Medina were located. The Mughal emperor combined religion and commerce by exporting essential goods to Aden and Mecca, and distributing the proceeds of the sales in charity to the keepers of shrines and religious men there.
(C.) Jesuits at the Mughal court:
European received knowledge about India through the accounts of Jesuit missionaries, travelers, merchants and diplomats. The first Jesuit mission reached the court of Mughal emperor Akbar at Fatehpur Sikri in 1580 led by Father Rudolf Acquaviva and stayed here for about two years. The Jesuits spoke to Akbar about Christianity and debated its virtues with the ulema. Two more missions were sent to the Mughal court of Lahore, in 1591and 1595 (Jerome Xavier). The Jesuit accounts are based on personal observation and shed light on the character and mind of the emperor. At public assemblies the Jesuits were assigned places in close proximity to Akbar’s throne.
Q5. Discuss the major feature of Mughal provincial administration. How did the centre control the provinces?
Ans. For an efficient and effective administration, Akber divided his empire into provinces or Suba. In 1580 there were 12 Subas and at the death of Akber15 Subas administered by Subahdar or Sipahsalar or Nazim who was directly appointed by king. He was responsible for law and order and commander-in-chief of provincial army. A Subahdar was assisted by a no. of provincial officers like Dewan (income and expenditure) Bakshi (chief military officer) Qazi or Sadr (justice and charitable trusts) Kotwal (police officer) and Waqia-i-navis (recorder of occurrences in provinces). These officer’s were appointed by Subahdar with prior approval from concerned central minister and emperor. They were Subordinate to Subahdar as well as to concerned Central Ministry and king.
Akber inherited excellent system of local administration from Sher Shah Suri. For an efficient administration, Akber divided his provinces into Sarkars each held by Faujdar or Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran who was responsible for law and order. There were 105 Sarkars during the period of Akber. The other important officers of Sarkars were: Amalguzar (assessment and collection of revenue), Bitikchi (assistant and record keeper) Khazandar (treasury officer)
For the administrative necessities, a Sarkar was divided into a no. of paragon’s under the inchargeship of Shiqdar who maintained general administration of pargana. He was assisted by Amil, Qanungo (surveyor of land), Fotedar and Karkun. The smallest unit administration under Mughals was village governed by panchayats headed by Muqaddam (village head) assisted by Patwari (Record Keeper) and chawkidar (Watchman). A town was headed by Kotwal (police chief), Qila (fort) by Qiladar and a port by Mutassadi.
Q. Discuss, with examples, the distinctive features of Mughal chronicles.
Ans. Historical literature commissioned by Mughal kings were written by court historians. They have been termed chronicles by historians. The important chronicles are Akbar Nama written by Abdul Fazl and Badshah Nama by Abdul Hamid Lahori in Persian.
A. The Akbar Nama is considered a landmark. It evolved a new style of writing, that was ornate and attached importance to diction and rhythm. It is divided into three books in which first two are chronicles and third is Ain-i-Akbari. It presents Akbar’s reign as a pinnacle of human history, the milestone of human progress.
B. They provide factual information about the institutions of the Mughal state and provide unique insight into the political, geographical, administrative, social, ideological, cultural events of that time.
C. Abu’l Fazl’s writings are a result of careful historical investigations based on primary documents. They give us glimpse into how imperial ideologies were created and disseminated, and Abul Fazl’s concept of divine light.
D. Paintings which were miniatures served not only to enhance the beauty of the book but conveyed the ideas to have impression on the mind of viewers.
E. The chronicles despite some limitations are an indispensible source for any scholar. Our knowledge of Mughal history would be clank in the absence of these works.
Q7. To what extent do you think the visual material presented in this chapter corresponds with Abu’l Fazl’s description of the taswir (source 1)?
Ans.
I. Drawing the likeness of anything is called taswir. His majesty from his earliest youth has shown a great predilection for this art, and gives it very encouragement, as he looks upon it as a means for both study and amusement.
II. A very large number of painters set to work.
III. Each painter, several supervisors and clerks of the imperial workshop submit before the emperor the work done by each artist, and his majesty gives a reward.
IV. Paintings served not only to enhance the beauty of a book, but were believed to possess special powers of communicating ideas about the kingdom and the power of kings in ways that the written medium could not.
V. The historian Abu’l Fazl described painting as a ‘magical art’. In his view it had the power to make inanimate objects look as if they possessed life.
VI. His description emphasis on the importance of painting as an art form. It seeks to legitimize this art.
VII. The Taswir had a clear political, symbolic, syncretic and documentary motive and significance.
Q. What were the distinctive features of the Mughal nobility? How was their relationship with the emperor shaped?
Ans. Mughal chronicles, especially the Akbar Nama, have given a vision of empire in which agency rests almost solely with the emperor, while the rest of the kingdom has been portrayed as following his orders. If we look more closely at the available information, the imperial organization was dependent on several different institutions. The most important pillar of the Mughal state was the nobility.
1) The nobility was recruited from diverse ethnic and religious group which ensured that no faction was large enough to challenge the authority of the state. The officer corps of the Mughals was described as a bouquet of flowers (guldasta) held together by loyalty to the emperor. In Akbar’s imperial service, Turani and Iranian nobles were present from the earliest phase of carving out a political dominion.
2) The holders of government offices was given the ranks (mansabs) comprising two numerical designations i.e, Zat and sawar.
3) For members of the nobility, Imperial service was a way of acquiring power, wealth and the highest possible reputation. A person wishing to join the service petitioned through a noble, who presented a tajwiz to the emperor.
4) If the applicant was found suitable, a mansab was granted to him. The mir bakshi (paymaster general) stood in open court on the right of the emperor and presented all candidates for appointment or promotion, while his office prepared orders bearing his seal and signature as well as those of the emperor.
5) These were two other important ministers at the centre, Dewan-i-Ala (finance minister) and sadr- us sadur (minister of grants or madad-I-maash). The three ministers occasionally came together as an advisory body, but were independent of each other. Akbar with these and other advisers shaped and administrative, fiscal and monetary institutions of the empire. Nobles stationed at the court (tainat-i-rakab) were a reserve force to be deputed to a province or military campaign.
6) Nobles were duty bound to appear twice a day to express their submission to the emperor. They also had to share the responsibility for guarding the emperor and his household round the clock.
Q9. Identify the elements that went into the making of the Mughal ideal of Kingship.
Ans. According to Akbar’s court poet, Abu’l Fazl, Mughal kingship as the highest station in the hierarchy of objects receiving light emanating from God (farr-I-izadi). According to this idea there was a hierarchy in which the Divine light was transmitted to the king (Mughal emperor) who then became the source of spiritual guidance for his subjects.
I. Mughal Chronicles present the empire as comprising many different and religious communities Hindu, Jains, Zoroastrians and muslims. As a source of all peace and stability, the emperor stood above all religious and ethnic groups, mediated among them, and ensured that justice and peace prevailed.
II. The ideal of sulh-i-kul (absolute peace) as the cornerstone of enlightened rule. In sulh-i-kul, all religions and schools of thought had freedom of expression but on condition that they did not undermine the authority of the state or fight among themselves.
III. The ideal of sulk-i- kul was implemented through state policies the nobility under the Mughals was composite one comprising Iranis, Turanis, Afghans, Rajputs, Deccan’s all of whom were given positions and awards purely on the basis of their service and loyalty to the king.
IV. Akbar abolished the tax on pilgrimage in 1563 and jizya in 1564 as the two were based on religious discrimination. Instructions were sent to officers of the empire to follow the concept of the sulh-I kul.
V. All Mughal emperors gave grants to support the buildings and maintenance of places of worship. However, it was during the reign of Aurangzeb, the jizya was re-imposed on non Muslim objects.
VI. Abu’l Fazl defined sovereignty as a social contract. According to him the emperor protects the four essences of subjects, namely, life (jan), property (mal), honor (namus) and faith (din), and in return demands obedience and a share of resources from the people.
Q. What is Manasabdar system?
Ans: The word ‘mansab’ is derived from an Arabic word which means ‘Fixing the place’ or rank. The manasabdar were the holders of Ranks in the emperor’s service. Every Commander to Public servant was given a rank of mansab. Each manasabdar was required to maintain a number of soldiers. All officers holding a mansab of 5000 or less were divided into three classes.
The manasabdar were directly recruited, promoted, suspended and dismissed by the emperor. Unlike the Jagirdari system, the mansabdari system was not hereditary. The manasabdar could be transferred by the emperor upon his sweet will. The mansabdari troops were recruited by the manasabdar himself. The king however, laid down general rules for recruitment, maintenance and payment of troops.
Q. Discuss the merits and demerits of the Mansabdari System.
1. Control on revolts.
2. Qualification as basis of ranks.
3. Ban on Corruption
4. Forceful army
5. Emotional unity
Demerits of Mansabdari System:
1. Misuse of money 2. Disloyalty of the soldiers towards the empire 3. Luxurious life of mansabdars. 4. High salary of mansabdars created pressure on govt. 5. Less number of horsemen than the prescribed number affected the effectiveness of military. 6. Lack of direct link between emperor and soldiers.
Q. Write a short note on Badshah Nama?
Ans. Badshah Nama Chronicle of a king based on the history of Shahjahan’s reign is an important chronicle among official histories. Abdul Hamid Lahori, a pupil of Abu’l Fazl is known as its author. It is modeled of 10 lunar years each. Lahori wrote the first and second daftars comprising of first two decades of Shahjahan’s reign (1627- 1647) But due to infirmities of age he was unable to write the 3rd volume. Volume of the 3rd decade of the emperor’s rule was chronicle by historian Waris. In 1944 the first time painting of Badshah Nama were exhibited in New Delhi, London and Washington.
Q. What was the leading language of Mughal court and Why?
Ans: As Mughals were Chagatai Turks by Origin, Turki was there mother tongue. Babar wrote Mubayan poetry and Babarnama in Turki. Under Akbar and Delhi Sultan Persian was leading language because of cultural and intellectual contacts with Iran. Persian was the court language of Mughals. All accounts and histories were written in Persian.
Q. Discuss with examples the defining status among Mughal elites?
Ans: At the centre of Mughal Empire was emperor and Takht (Throne) and royal canopy (Chattr) mirrored his status in the society. In court the proximity to king was a sign of importance in the emperor. The forms of salutations like Sajida (complete Prostration) which Shahjahan replaced with Chahar Tasleem and Zaminbos (kissing the ground). Another form of defining status was grant of titles and awards like Robe of honour and Sarapa given on exceptional times and conferred on meritorious and faithful persons.
Q. Clarify the word meaning of Kornish?
Ans. Kornish was a form of ceremonial salutation in which the Courtier placed the palm of his right hand against his forehead and bent his head, It suggested that the subject placed his head the seat of the senses and the mind into the hand of humility; presenting it to the royal assembly.
Q. Briefly discuss paintings purpose in the production of Manuscripts?
Ans: Mughal Chronicles narrate the events of mughal emperors reigns were richly endowed with paintings to enhance the beauty of book with visual expressions, to communicate ideas about kingdom and power of kings in ways which written medium could not e.g Bihzad contributed to spreading cultural frame of the Safavid court in Iran.
Q. How the ideal of Sulh-i-kul was implemented?
Ans: The ideal of sulh-i-kul was implemented through state policies like rewarding loyal services with awards, positions and titles. Akbar abolished taxes like Pilgrimage Tax in 1563 and Jizya in 1564 to end religious discrimination. Special instructions were issued to follow the percepts of Sulh-i-kul. He gave grants for maintenance and construction of religious buildings without any discrimination.
Q. Why is Mughal composite culture is called as Mughal court culture?
Ans: The Mughal composite culture is called as Mughal court culture because it was inspired throughout the period by the throne and masses had no significance. IT depended entirely on royal patronage under the keen personal interest of emperor. It languished and fade away with the lack in interest of emperors.
Q. What is Ibadat Khana?
Ans:- in 1575 Akber built Ibadat Khana in Fatehpur Sikri to discuss Religious issues with Muslims ulemas later on with non muslims as well. Here Akbar held discussions on various issues of religion and universe on every Thursday night. His religious views matured from orthodox islam to Sulh-I- kul (Universal peace). Din-i-Illahi was the highest end of his Sulh-i-Kul.
Q. Name the dynasty which ruled India during 1526 to 1707. Who was the founder of this dynasty?
Ans. Mughal dynasty and founder of this dynasty was Babur.
Q. What is meant by the term Kitab khana?
Ans. The literal translation of the term Kitab khana is library. It was a scriptorium that is a place where the Emperors collection of manuscripts were kept and manuscripts were produced.
Q. Manuscripts involved a number of people performing a variety of tasks. Give some such people engaged in the task?
Ans. Manuscripts involved a number of people performing a variety of tasks. Among them were paper marker, calligrapher, gliders, painters, bookbinders.
Q. Babur’s memories were return in which language?
Ans. Babur’s memories Tuzuk-i-Babari were originally written in Turkish. They were translated in Persian as Babur Nama.
Q. What is Nastaliq?
Ans: Calligraphy was practices using different styles. Akbar liked ‘nastaliq’ style. It was a fluid style using long horizontal strokes. A neat and tidy reed called ‘qistems’ dipped in carbon ink was used for writing.
Key concepts in nutshell
• Jarokha Darshan: The appearance of king at dawn at the latticed window for those subjects who believe that the sight of king auspicious more than immersion in Holy water.
• Tuladan: The weighing of king or Princes on special occasion like birthday with costly metals to be distributed among poor to warding off bad omens.
• Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdul Samad were two famous painters from Iran in Humayun’s Court.
• Tuzk-i-Babri or Babarnama is the autobiography of first Mughal Emperor of India Babur, written in Turki. It has been translated into English from original Turki by A.S. Beveridge under the Title “Memoirs of Babur”.
• During Akbar’s rule Sanskrit books like Mahabharatha was translated into Persian under the title Razmnama (book of wars).
• Akbar built Fatehpur Sikri as his Capital in 1571-86 as it was enroute to his revered Sufi saint Khawaja Moin ud din Chisti of Ajmer.
• Humayun Nama is written by Gulbadan Begum, sister of Humayun in Persian.
• Farr-I-Izzadi means Light emanating from God.
• Padma Murassa was a lotus blossom set with jewels.
• Sir William Jones found Asiatic society of Bengal in 1784. This society is honored with the publication of edited versions of Akbarnama and Badshahnama.
• Aurangzeb reimposed Jaziya in 1679 on non Muslims.
• Manuscript production involved paper maker, calligrapher, glider, painter and book binder.
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