THEME – 7
AN IMPERIAL CAPITAL: VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE
ShortAnswerTypeQuestions
Q. What have been the methods used to study the ruins of Hampi over the last two centuries? In what way do you think they would have complemented the information provided by the priests of the Virupaksha temple?
Ans. The engineer and antiquarian Colonel Colin Mackenzie brought the ruins of Hampi to light in 1800 C.E. He worked for many years, in East India Company and prepared the first Survey maps of this site. His earlier information was based on the memories of priest of the Virupaksha temple and shrine of Pampadevi. From 1856 onwards, photographers started to record the picture of monuments. The picture of the sites helped the scholars to study them. Dozens of inscription from Virupaksha temples and other temples situated around Hampi were collected by Historians for supplementary information. Other sources such as accounts of foreign travelers and literature composed in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil and Sanskrit languages were used by the historians so that the History of the city could be reconstructed. These functions complemented the information given to priests of Virupaksha temple.
Q. How was the water requirements of Vijayanagara met?
Ans. The requirement of water in Vijayanagara was fulfilled from the natural basin formed by the river Tungabhadra. This flowed in the north-eastern direction and was surrounded by stunning granite hills. The rulers of Vijayanagara built large embankments to store water. They also constructed reservoirs of varying sizes. They also made arrangements to store the rainwater as this was the most arid zone of the peninsula. A large water tank known as Kamalapuram tank was built in the 15th century to store water. The water of this tank was used for Royal centre and to irrigate the nearby fields. The Hiriya canal drew water from a dam across the Tungabhadra River which was used for irrigation.
Q. What do you think were the advantages and disadvantages of enclosing agricultural land within the fortified area of the city?
Ans. Advantages of enclosing agriculture land within fortified area:
I. It had an elaborate canal system which drew water from the Tungabhadra to provide irrigation facilities.
II. The enclosure of cultivated fields and gardens, saved crops from being eaten by wild animals.
III. In the medieval period, sieges were laid to starve the defending armies into submission and elaborated a strategy to protect the agricultural belt and built large granaries.
IV. The kings took keen interest in ensuring sufficient water supply to vijayanagara. Disadvantages:
a. This system was very expensive. During adverse circumstances, this system proved inconvenient to the farmers.
b. The farmers had to seek the permission of gate-keeper to reach their field.
c. If enemy encircled the field, the farmer could not look after their field.
d. As kingdom was attacked by the enemies at the time of standing crop or harvest time, the aggressors could easily burn the crop.
Q. What do you think was the significance of the rituals associated with the Mahanavami Dibba?
Ans. The Mahanavami dibba was the king’s palace in Vijayanagara though there is no definite evidence. The Mahanavami Dibba had a very impressive platform known as “the audience hall”. It was surrounded by high double walls with a street running between them. Many rituals were associated with the mahanavami Dibba. Here the Hindu festival Mahanavami or Navaratri were celebrated in the months of september-october. This festival continued for 9 days. The rulers of Vijayanagara Empire displayed their power, prestige and suzerainty. On this occasion, several ceremonies were performed like Worship of the different gods and goddesses, Worship of the state horse and the sacrifice of buffaloes and other animals.
The main attraction of this occasion was Dances, Wrestling Matches and procession of horses, elephants, chariots and soldiers. All these ceremonies were presented before the king and his guests. On the last day of the festival, the king inspected his army as well as the nayakas of the army. He also accepted gift from the nayakas.
Q. The figure given above is an illustration of another pillar from the Virupaksha temple. Do you notice any floral motifs? What are the animals shown? Why do you think they are depicted? Describe the human figures shown.
Ans. Given illustration of the pillar from the Virupaksha temple has pictures of plants bearing flowers and different animals and birds like peacock, horse, duck etc. These pictures were probably carved out on gateways to attract people. These pictures also express devotion, religiousness and love for art and patronage by the ruler. These various kinds of animals and birds were associated with different gods and goddesses that is why they were also worshipped. Human pictures include both deities and their worshippers respectively. A god is shown wearing garlands (maala) and crown. He also has gadda in his hands. Probably he was the destroyer of Rakshashas. In another picture, a devotee is shown near the “Shiv linga”. His method of worship is also strange which is not defined in any form.
LongAnswerTypeQuestions
Q. Discuss whether the term “Royal centre” is an appropriate description for the part of the city for which it is used.
Ans. The royal centre was located in the South-Western part of the Vijayanagara city. The temples
(60) outnumber the building complexes (30) designated as palaces. The fact that temples outnumber the secular structures, point to the fact that rulers extended patronage to temples in order to legitimize their rule and acquire a divine status for themselves. The difference between temples and buildings identified as palaces is that temples have been constructed entirely of stone
masonry while secular buildings have been made of perishable materials.
The very unique structure is the royal palace. It is the largest of the enclosures with two platforms namely Audience Hall and Mahanavami Dibba. First one is very high platform with slots of wooden pillars at close and regular intervals it has stairs going up to the second floor which rested on these pillars and little free space does make it clear what the hall was used for.
Mahanavami dibba is located on the highest point in the city and is a massive platform rising from a base of about 11000sq.ft. to a height of 40ft. The base of the wooden platform is covered with fine carvings. Lotus Mahal is the other building. It was named by a British visitor in the 19th century Historians are not agreed on its uses. According to map drawn by Mackenzie it may have been a council chamber where the king met with his advisers.
Hazara temple is the most important temple found in the royal centre. It was meant to be used by the king and his family. The images of the central shrine are missing. The sculpted panels which survive include scenes from the Ramayana.
Q7. What does the architecture of Buildings like Lotus Mahal and elephant stables tell us about the rulers who commissioned them?
Ans. The architecture of buildings like the Lotus Mahal and elephant stables tell us that the rulers had adopted Indian traditional symbols, signs and totems. They were Hindu by faith but they were liberal by nature.
A. Lotus Mahal:
Lotus mahal was so named by the British travelers in the 19th century. Historians have different opinions regarding the use of this building. This building was used as a council chamber where the king met his advisers. In this regard, they gave the evidence of a map drawn by Colonel Collin Mackenzie. This building is constructed in Indo-Islamic style of architecture. The pillars and arch were built in Muslim Style while the walls and roof were constructed in Indian style. Wood and stone figures were engraved on the walls and roof. It gave them a decorative appearance. With the passage of time to the most part of this building got destroyed hence it is difficult to guess its grandeur.
B. Elephant stables:
The Rayans (rulers) of the Vijayanagara maintained a very large army. There were a large number of elephants in the army. To keep these elephants, eleven vaulted chambers as stable for elephants were constructed near the Lotus Mahal. The eleven stables with ribbed finials with which the dome alternate are original devices. The arched entrances to the chambers and the flattish domes, point to Bahmani influence.
Q8. What are the architectural traditions that inspired the architects of Vijayanagara? How did they transform these traditions?
Ans. The rulers of Vijayanagara were known for their innovations in the sphere of architectural traditions. They built many new temples which presented their architectural skills. They also added many new features like Gopurams or royal gateways in Temple architecture. The towers (Vimana) of the central shrines (garbhagriha) signaled the presence of the temple from a great distance. But the royal gateways surpassed the other structures. They showed that the kings had the full command over the resources, techniques and skills. Other distinctive feature’s of architectural style includes the constructions of mandapas or pavilions and pillared corridors that ran around the shrines. There were two main temples, The Virupaksha temple and the Vithala Temple.
Virupaksha Temple: Virupaksha Temple was built over a long period of time beginning from 9th to 10th centuries. It was substantially enlarged by the kings of Vijayanagra Empire. Krishna Deva Raya built the hall in front of main shrine which is decorated with carved pillars to mark his accession to the throne. He also constructed the eastern gopuram. The images of gods in temple halls were used in such a way so that they could witness cultural programmes or to celebrate marriages of gods & men.
Vithala Temple: In vithala temple the main deity was Vithala, a form of god Vishnu popularly worshipped in Maharashtra. Worship of Vithala is an example how Vijayanagra kings embraced different traditions to create an imperial culture of their own. The chariot streets extended from the temple gopuram in the straight line. The streets were paved with stone slabs and lined pillars in which shops were set up.
Q9. What impression of the lives of the ordinary people of Vijayanagara can you call from the various descriptions by historians?
Ans. The chief sources of information about ordinary people were literary texts and writings of foreign travellers like Nicolo Conti, Abdul Razzaq, D. Barbosa, Domingo Paes and F. Nuniz. From these accounts we can say ordinary people were those people who did not take part in power structure. They spoke different languages and follow different religious traditions. They consisted of small traders and local merchants. They used to live in cities, trading centers, port towns and villages.
Local community of merchants known as Kudirai chettis or horse merchants participated in exchanges. People such as peasants, workers, slaves, etc. were also included in ordinary people. The worker’s were known as “Vipra viodin”. The groups of ironsmiths, goldsmiths, carpenters, sculpture makers, etc. often quarreled. Kaikkol known as the weavers were in large numbers. They lived near temples. They placed significant role in running the administration of the temple.
In Vijayanagara there were Gadarias known as Kambalattar. They followed the customs of polyandry. The special characteristic was that the wife was elder to the husband. Their women had physical relations with the husband’s kinsmen like father, brothers.
There was an orthodox bigot section in Vijayanagara called as reddis who owned the land. They had enough influence in the Telugu region of Vijayanagara.
In the society there were a few low class people, who were non influential. They were Domber, Marva, Jogi, Paraiyan, Boi Kallaar, etc. Some low caste people converted to Christianity under the influences of Portuguese. Despite the prosperity, the society was marked by disparities in wealth and position evident from practice of slavery, caste system, devadasi, etc.
Q:- Evaluate the importance of Amara Nayaka System in emergence of Vijayanagara Empire?
Ans. The amara-nayaka system was a major political innovation of the Vijayanagara Empire. It is likely that many features of this system were derived from the iqta system of the Delhi Sultanate.
(i) Amara-nayakas were military commanders who were given territories to govern by the raya. They collected taxes and other dues from peasants.
(ii) Amara nayaka retained part of the revenue for personal use and for maintaining a stipulated contingent of horses and elephants.
(iii) These contingents provided the Vijayanagara Kings with an effective fighting force with which they brought the entire southern peninsula under their control.
(iv) Amara nayakas sent tribute to the King annually and personally appeared in the royal court with gifts to express their loyalty.
(v) Kings occasionally asserted their control over them by transferring them from one place to another.
Q. the relationship between sultans and the Raya’s were not always inevitably hostile. Discuss?
Ans: It has been asserted that Vijayanagra represents a Hindu revival in south India. The rulers patronized Hindu temples and Cults and often tried to establish and legitimize their authority and gain popular support. The Hindu kingdom did not form an alliance against the muslim rulers and the rulers of Vijayanagra never hesitated to attack a hindu kingdom either.
The differences between Sultans of Deccan and Vijayanagra were dictated by ambitions of rulers and economic factors rather than religious factors. Their relations were not inevitably hostile and there were occasions when they extended support to each other e.g, Krishnadeva Raya’s supported some claimants to the sultanate and got title “establisher of the Yavana Kingdom.” Similarly Sultans of Bijapur intervened to resolve succession dispute in Vijayanagra following the death of Krishnadeva raya. It was the adventurous policy of Rama Raya who tried to play off one sultan against other and in return the sultans combined and defeated him in the Battle of Talikota (Rakshasi Tangadi) in 1565.
Q. Give some distinctive features of Urban Core within the fortifications of Vijayanagra?
Ans: The main source of information about urban core is archeological remains, surveys and accounts of foreign travellers. Excavations of Chinese porcelain from north-eastern corner suggest it may have been occupied by rich traders. Tanks and Mosques resembling mandapas of the temples of Hampi indicate muslim residential quarters. Field surveys indicate the entire area was dotted with numerous shrines and temples pointing to prevalence of variety of cults. Further, more wells, rain water tanks and temple tanks may have been used for water sources to ordinary people.
Q. Krishnadeva Raya was the greatest king of Vijayanagra Empire. Discuss?
Ans: Krishnadeva Raya belonged to Taluva Dynasty whose rule is marked by expansion and consolidation. In a series of battles he defeated the Gajapati (Elephant tamers) rulers of Odisha and Sultans of Bijapur for Raichur Doab. Foreign travellers like Barbosa, Paes, and Nuniz speak of the efficient administration and prosperity of empire under his sway. Agricultural flourished and increased due to Raya’s irrigation policy. There was flourishing Inland, Coastal and overseas trade. Krishnadeva Raya was also a great builder. He built fine temples with impressive Gopurams. He built a new town near Vijayanagra known as Nagalapuram. He was also known for justice and patronize to scholars. Amuktamalayada is famous statecraft book of his period. Domingo Paes remarks,” he is a great ruler and a man of much justice but subject to sudden fits of rage”.
Q:- Hampi town is located in the bank of which river?
Ans. It is located on the bank of Tunghbhadra River.
Q:- Which goddess is called Pampa ?
Ans. Goddess Pampa is the name of goddess Parvati.
Q:- Who was Colin Mackenzie ? Mention his importance in Indian history?
Ans. Colin Mackenzie used to work in British East India Company. He took birth in1754. He is a famous engineer, surveyor and humanist. He became the first Surveyor General of British India in 1815. He died in the year 1821. He began to survey in the traditional culture and historical places of
India in order to run administration of Colonial India more smoothly and effectively.
Q:- Mention the silent features of the temple of Hampi?
Ans. The temple of Hampi is well articulated with artistic pillars like structure. Magnificent structure with gallery surrounded with pillars around divinity and the place of god is one of the features of the temples. The main temple of Hampi is Vitthala and Hazareram.
Key concepts in nutshell
➢ Vijayanagra or “The city of Victory” was the name of both City and empire. It was found by two brothers namely Harihara and Bukka in 1436. Contemporaries called it Karnataka Samrajyamu.
➢ Discovery of Hampi – In 1799 the first British antiquarian Colin Mackenzie. First Surveyor general of India visited the ruins Hampi, collected some manuscripts had some water colors painted on monuments and made the first map of the site.
➢ Domingo Paes an Italian traveller used the term House of Victory for the Audience hall and Mahanavami Dibba located in Royal Centre.
➢ Hampi Bazar – Portuguese travelers Paes and Nuniz visited Hampi in the mid 1500 century. They give an account of Hampi Bazar thus “in this street lived many merchants and there you will find all sorts of rubies, diamonds pearls and cloths that you may wish to buy.
➢ The terms Gajapati (lord of elephants) for Odisha rulers, Asvapati (lord of Horses) for Deccan Sultans and Narapati (Lord of men) for Vijayanagra rulers were used.
➢ Yavana is a Sanskrit word used for Greeks.
➢ Pampadevi means goddess Parvati
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