Unit 5
Nomadic Empires
(Mongol Empire)
Short Answer Type Questions
Q: Why was trade so significant to the Mongols?
Ans: Trade was significant to Mongols because some Mongol’s were pastoralists while others were hunter gatherers. The extremes in temperature made agriculture possible in short durations. But unlike sedentary Turks, they did not take to farming. So to obtain agricultural products they had to depend upon trade. Scanty resources in steppe lands drove nomad Mongol’s to trade and barter with their sedentary neighbor’s china. Trade was mutually beneficial for both the Mongol’s and their Chinese neighbor’s. Mongols exchanged horses, fur, and game trapped in the steppe for agricultural produce and iron utensils from china.
Q: Why did Genghis Khan feel the need to fragment the Mongol tribes into new social and military groupings?
Ans: Genghis khan felt the need to fragment the mongol tribes, alter the old steppe social order by integrating different lineages and clans, and forming new social and military groupings because:
1. He wanted to control and discipline his mongol tribes and make them into a fighting machine with destructive power to ensure success in his future campaigns.
2. He wanted complete commitment and forestall any possibility of revolt or threat to his rule by replacing right of old chieftains derived from being clan chiefs by new aristocracy which derived its status from its progenitor Genghis Khan.
3. He wanted to publically appreciate and acclaim his loyal officers with titles Anda (Blood brother) and Naukar (bandsman).
4. He divided Mongol empire among his four sons and eradicated any threat to their collective ruling.
Q: How do later Mongol reflections on the Yasa bring out uneasy relationship they had with the memory of Genghis Khan?
Ans: Yasa was the code of law that Genghis Khan is supposed to have promulgated in the 1206 Quriltai (Mongol Assembly) regarding administration, organisation of hunt, army and postal system. It was also based on mongol traditions and war and peace time regulations of Genghis Khan. The Mongol Empire included besides tribals and sedentary people from cities with their own laws, culture and history.
The later Mongols could not apply the harsh rules of Genghis Khan on their subjects as they themselves got sedentarised, nor could they condemn it. This caused an uneasy relationship. By referring to Yasa as Genghis code of law they claimed a law giver like Solomon and Moses. Thus, Yasa served to unite mongol people around a body of shared beliefs and acknowledged their affinity to Genghis Khan. They retained their identity, and gave them confidence to impose law, vital in the construction of Mongol Empire.
Long Answer Type Questions
Q: Keeping in view the nomadic elements of the mongol and Bedouin societies in mind, how in your opinion, did their respective historical experience differ? What explanations would you suggest account for these differences?
Ans: Mongol nomads were wanderers, organised in family assemblies with relatively undifferentiated economic life and rudimentary systems of political organisation. But both the nomads of Arabian Peninsula and central Asian steppes established vast empire.
1. The social and political organisation of both Nomadic and Agrarian societies are different. Their scanty resources drove them to trade and barter with their sedentary neighbor’s. The Arabs conquest of Byzantine Empire in west and Persian (Sassanian) Empire in east was also marked by religious zeal as Arabs promoted Islam in these lands.
2. The Mongol’s sought to assert their domination on China, Persia and Eastern Europe. Increasing contact with other countries led to sedentrization of these nomadic societies, transforming their traditional and political ways and laying foundation of stable military system and governance.
3. Unlike Bedouin Arabs, The Mongol’s brought no spirituality with them. They were tolerant and never let their personal beliefs and steppe way of life dictate public policy. Mongol empire was multi-ethnic, multi-lingual and multi-religious and they never felt threatened by its pluralistic constitution.
4. The main ideology of Mongols was ‘Mongolism’ which glorified the imperial and military might of Mongol’s and dreamed of world conquest. Their twin objective was hegemony and perpetuation of ruling dynasty.
Q: ‘if the history relies upon written records produced by city based literati, nomadic societies will always receive a hostile representation.’ Would you agree with this statement? Does it explain the reason why Persian chronicles produced such inflated figures of casualties resulting from Mongol campaigns?
Ans: There is substantial truth in the statement that nomadic Mongol’s received hostile presentation in the historical books of city based Persian chroniclers because Mongols produced little literature of their own. The only image that appears of Genghis khan in our eyes is that of a conqueror, destroyer of cities and killers of people in lakhs. “They (Mongols) came, they mined walls, they burnt, they slew, they plundered and they departed.”
Yet it must b noted that Genghis khan was greatest leader of all the times who fashioned a trans-continental empire, restored trade routes and markets that invited attention of distant travellers like Marco Polo of Venice. The eye witness reports of killings in the Bukhara conquest contrast with Persian chronicles. Thus, one can without any doubt that for treasons of ignorance and hate, the Mongol’s account in city based Persian chronicles is highly biased.
Additional Questions
Q: Discuss how Genghis Khan successfully worked out to systematically erase out the Old Tribal identities of different groups who joined the confederacy?
Ans: Genghis Khan worked out to systematically erase out the old tribal identities by:
1. Stopping the practice of clan and tribal identities within the decimal units of army.
2. Dividing the old tribal groupings and distributing their members into new military units.
3. The largest unit of soldiers was 10,000, which included fragmented groups of people from various groups and sub groups, giving them a new identity.
4. The rights of old chieftains were not preserved. New aristocracy was derived from close associates of Great Khan of the Mongols.
5. Administers were appointed from conquered societies and their experience was shared with people of other regions.
Thus, the multi-ethnic, multi-lingual and multi-religious groups were united under a common regime.
Q: List some of the salient features of early Mongol Livelihood and society?
Ans: The early decades of Thirteenth century saw the emergence of world’s largest empire with center at steppes of Central Asia. It was Genghis Khan who united the Mongol tribes in to a strong political power. Following are some of the chief features of early Mongol society.
1. The Mongols were diverse body of nomadic people in the steppes of central Asia in the modern state of Mongolia.
2. The Mongols lived in tents, “Gers” and travelled with their herds from winter areas to summer pastures.
3. Society was divided in to patrilineal lineages. The only bond that united them was the ethnic and language ties.
4. The Mongols did not take to farming due to extremes in temperature. Due to scanty resource, the Mongols indulged in barter trade with their Chinese agricultural societies.
5. Groups of families occasionally allied for offensive and defensive purposes around rich and powerful lineages.
6. The size of Genghis Khans confederation of Mongols and Turkish tribes was unmatched.
Q: Discuss the methods adopted by Mongols for administration of the vast empire?
1. Replacement of old chieftains by the new aristocratic class, Integration of different lineages and clans to its primogenitor Genghis Khan to ensured commitment and subordination.
2. Division of Empire into four Ulus (Territory) each headed by a prince. This was a joint rule by Mongolian princes.
3. For effective and collective governance, military contingent ‘Tama’ of each prince was stationed in each Ulus.
4. A Rapid Courier System ‘Yam’ was started to stay connected with different parts of the empire.
5. All decisions pertaining to state were taken collectively at the assembly of the chieftains known as ‘Quriltai’.
6. Genghis Khans code of laws commonly known as ‘Yasa’ was an authoritative code imposed on conquered societies.
Q: Give a brief account of Military system of Genghis Khan?
Ans: It is because of the great leadership and organizational skills of Genghis Khan that
Mongols established the largest nomadic, trans-continental empire in Asia and Europe during 13th& 14th centuries. Genghis Khans military achievements were because of his innovative skills to transform aspects of steppe combat into effective military strategies. He erased old tribal identities of different groups who joined confederacy by dividing and distributing them in to new decimal military units with strict discipline within the units. The largest unit of army 10000 (Taman) soldiers included fragmented groups of various tribes and clans. The new military contingents derived their power and status from Genghis khan which ensured their allegiance. The close army captains were titled as Anda and Naukar. The army had to serve under his four sons.
Q: Write short note on Courier system of Genghis Khan?
Ans: It was Genghis Khan who started the courier system (Yam) which was later refined after his death. This fast courier system enabled Mongols to administer the vast empire as it connected and enabled communication with far flung areas of his empire. Fresh mounts and dispatch riders were placed at outposts at regular intervals. To maintain the system a special tax called as Qubcur tax was levied at the rate of 1/10th of herds. The speed and reliability of courier system has surprised traders and travelers.
Q: Explain the term Nomad?
Ans: Nomads are quintessential wanderers, organized in family with a relatively undifferentiated economic life and rudimentary system of political organization.
Q: Who were Mongols?
Ans: Mongols were the fierce tribe of central Asian Mongolia. By similarities ion language, they were linked to Tartars, Khitan and Manchus of East and Turkic tribes of west. Some mongols were pastoralists while others were Hunter gatherers. They tended horse, sheep and to lesser extent cattle, goats and camels.
Q: Define Quriltai?
Ans: Quriltai was the assembly of Mongol chieftains. It was Quriltai in 1206 that Temujin was declared as Great Khan (Genghis Khan), Universal ruler and Oceanic Khan.
Pointstoremember: Temujjin was the childhood name of Genghis Khan. Anda: Real or Blood Brother.
Naukar: Bonded man, a rank of humbler but intimate people. Tama: Military Contingent.
Paiza: A pass or permit to move from one place to another.
Yam: a Courier System that connected the distant areas of his regime. Fresh mounts and dispatch riders were placed on outer posts at regular spaced distances.
Baj: A tax Imposed on traders.
Yasa: A Code of Laws Promulgated by Genghis Khan in 1206 Quriltai.
Qubcur tax: for the maintenance of communication system the mongol nomads contributed 1/10th of their herds- either horses of live stocks as provision. This was called Qubcur tax.
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