Central Islamic Lands Unit 4th Class 11th History

 

Unit- 4th 

Central Islamic Lands

ShortAnswerTypeQuestions

Q: What were the main features of the lives of the Bedouins in the early 7th century?

Ans: Camel pastoralists of Arabian Peninsula were known as Bedouins. These Bedouins were the best suited to the arid Arabian Peninsula with no permanent rivers and dotted with oases formed by springs and wells. The Bedouin settlements were usually small in size because arid environment can’t support large concentration of population. They had intimate knowledge of terrain and environment, they knew exactly where and how long they could find subsistence for themselves and their animals. Their social organisation was based on independent tribe (Qabila) recognizing common ancestor, headed by chief (Sheikh). They combined pastoralism with raids on neighboring tribes to augment resources. From submissive tribes ‘Khuwa’as tribute was realized.

Q: Discuss some main features of early Arab community?

Ans: The Arabs before the advent of Islam were divided into tribes (Qabila) each lead by a chief (Sheikh) chosen partly on family descent or for personal courage, wisdom and generosity. Each tribe had its own god and goddesses worshipped as idol (Sanam) in the shrine. The Kaaba in Mecca was regarded as holy shrine by even tribes outside of Mecca. Many Arab tribes were nomadic (Bedouin). Pilgrimage and commerce gave an opportunity to nomadic and settled communities to communicate each other and share their beliefs and customs. The Arabs were familiar with the notion of supreme God possibly Allah but their attachment to idols was more immediate and stronger.

Q: What is meant by the term Abbassid revolution?

Ans: Ummayad Caliphate came to end when last Ummayad Caliph Marwan-II was killed by Abu Muslim in the battle of Zab (river) in 750 CE and establishment of Abbassid Caliphate with Abbass-us Saffa as new caliph. A well-organized movement of Dawa in khurasan brought down the Ummayad power and replaced it with Abbassid’s. Abbassid rule is referred as Abbasid Revolution because this period led far reaching changes not only in dynasty but in political structure as well as culture of Islam.

Abbassid rule declined Arab influence as center of political power shifted from Syria to Baghdad (Southern Iraq). The army and Bureaucracy were further reorganized on non-tribal basis. Fusion of Arab and non-Arab (Persian) traditions in administration like – Kingship as supreme authority, elaborate Court ceremonials and rituals. There was marked increase in long distance trade and expansion of urban centers like Kufa, Basra and Cairo. Abbassid rule made advances in the field of Medicine, astronomy, mathematics, writing of history, art and architecture.

Q: Give some examples of Cosmopolitan Character of the states set up by Arabs, Iranians and Turks?

Ans: The vast territories from Egypt to Afghanistan formed the core area of Islamic Civilization from 600-1200. Despite the predominance of Islam, non-Muslims were well treated and states bore a cosmopolitan character e.g.

a. In the central Islamic Lands, non-Muslims were declared protected (Dhimmi) who retained their right to property and religious practices on payment of taxes like Kharaj and Jaziya.

b. Ummayad caliphate adopted court ceremonies of Byzantium Empire, appointed Christian advisors, Zoroastrians Scribes and bureaucrats in the services of State.

c. Abbassid rule reorganized army and bureaucracy to encourage greater participation of Iraqi and Khurasani nobles.

d. The Turks entered Abbassid, Samanid and Buyid administration as slaves but managed to occupy top pots of state on account of their bravery and cosmopolitan character of state.

Long Answer Type Questions

Q: How were the Islamic Architectural forms different from those of Roman Empire?

Ans: (A) Roman Architecture: 

The Roman architecture flourished under Roman Republic and Roman Empire. Roman Emperors were great builders. Solidity and magnificence in conception were the two important features of their architecture. Some other important features are:

1. Arch and dome were invented by Romans.

2. Art of painting murals on walls was highly developed.

3. Roman buildings were especially made of Cement, brick and stone.

4. The arch was rich and used in gates, bridges, buildings and monuments of victory e.g., the colosseum were gladiators contested.

(B)  Islamic Architecture:

1. Religious buildings like mosques, shrines and tombs were greatest Architectural manifestations of Islamic Architecture.

2. Arch’s, Dome, Minarets, twisted Columns and open court yard were chief features of Islamic Architecture.

3. Mosques had distinct architectural form, entrance from eastern side, facing western side, open court yard, Minber, pond for ablution etc.

4. Islamic buildings were decorated with calligraphy, arabesque, geometrical and floral designs.

Q. Describe a journey from Samarqand to Damascus, referring to the cities enroute?

Ans: While travelling from Samarqand to Damascus one would pass through many states and geographical regions like transoxiana, Khurasan, Iran, Iraq, and Syria which were central part of Islamic empire. The Important cities enroute are:

1. Samarqand capital of Timur, known for buildings, mosques and tombs.

2. Nishapur: Principal town in Khurasan, known for learning and trade.

3. Merv: founded during Alexandra’s time was leading urban centre in Iran.

4. Isfahan: In Iran, known for great square grand mosque and hall of 40 pillars’.

5. Basra: located on the mouth of Persian Gulf, known as commercial centre.

6. Baghdad: Caliph Al-Mansur founded Baghdad on the banks of River Tigris in 762CE. Baghdad grew into greatest metropolis of world and was perhaps the largest city of Middle Ages.

7. Aleppo in north-west Syria and Antioch known for splendor, luxury and ancient centre of Christianity.

8. Damascus: one of the oldest cities known for great mosque and tomb of Salah ud din Ayubi.

Q:- Discuss origin of Sufism? Highlight its chief feature’s/principles; also mention  the important Sufi silsilas?

Ans: - Sufism or Tasawuf is the name given to various mystical tendencies and movements that emerged in Islam. It aimed at direct communion between God and individual soul through love and devotion to one God. The word Sufism is derived from Arabic word ‘suf’ meaning wool. The Sufi saints wore these coarse woolen garments hence began to be called as Sufi’s. The main features of Sufism are:

1. The Sufi’s emphasised on love and devotion as a means of coming nearer to god. If one truly loves god, he comes nearer to him.

2. It is necessary to follow Pir/Murshid to reach different states (haal) and stages (Muqamat) in the realization of god.

3. Self-mortification, Zikr, chilai Maakus, etc are the spiritual exercises necessary for different states and stages in the realization of god.

4. The Sufi’s organized themselves into a chain (silsilah/order) originating from a venerating saint.

5. Sufi khanqah /hospice became the centre of their activities.

Some of the famous Sufi saints were Sheikh Abdul Qadir Jeelani, Rabia Basri, Bayazid Bistami, Sheikh Shihab ud din Suhrawardi, Khawaja Moin Ud din Chisti, Nizam Ud Din Auliya etc

Q: List some main sources for understanding   Central   Islamic   Lands   between   600-1200   CE? 

Ans: Our Understanding of history of Central Islamic Lands between 600-1200 CE is based on Chronicles or ‘Tawarikh’ written in Arabic and Persian, Semi historical works (biographies), Prophetic sayings (Hadith) and doings (Sunnah), Commentaries on Quran (Tafseer), Eye witness reports (Akhbar), Documentary evidences in Greek and Arabic, Papyri and Geniza Records. Archeological evidences like numismatic and epigraphic evidences.

Q: What were Crusades? List some important reasons of hostility between Christians and Muslims between 11th to 13th centuries?

Ans: Crusades are a series of western European Christians onslaughts to obtain by force from Muslims the Holy land i.e, Jerusalem. In Islamic world the crusades are regarded as cruel and savage onslaughts by franks (Firangi) on cultured Islam.

The origin of word crusade may be traced to the cross made of cloth and worn as badge on the outer garments of crusader. These crusades were authorized by Pope and took place between 11th and 13th centuries. The crusade according to Christians was a righteous campaign to root out evil or to fight for just cause. The wars were fought in the name of God. In Islamic terminology the similar word is Jihad.

Q. What were Causes of Crusades?

Ans: Crusades are a series of western European Christians conquests to obtain by force from Muslims the Holy land of Christian’s that is Jerusalem.

Causes:

1. Pope’s call to European Christians for liberating Holy Land Jerusalem from Muslims.

2. The hostility towards Muslims world was motivated by religious zeal, the desire for land and finally for trading ambitions of Italian cities.

3. The aggressive feudal society built a climate in which fight against the Muslims (enemies of God) was not only permissible but commendable.

4. The death of Sultan Malik Shah and disintegration of Seljuk Empire gave an opportunity to Emperor Alexius-I to regain Asia Minor and northern Syria from Muslims. Pope Urban-II saw the opportunity to revive the spirit of Christianity. He called for the war in the name of God to liberate the Holy Land.

Q: What were the effects of Crusades on Europe and Asia?

Ans: The wars between Christians and Muslims for control on the Holy Land Jerusalem from 11th century are known as Crusades. These wars had far reaching effects on Europe and Asia.

1. Loss of human lives, harsher attitude towards people of other community.

2. Since crusades, the western countries developed a distorted image of Islam which they regarded as enemy of descent civilization.

3. Drain of resources of Nobles, Church and Papacy.

4. Crusades helped in the development of unique European culture and civilization as contacts with Arabs enhanced their knowledge in various fields.

Q: What do you know about the agriculture of central Islamic lands?

Ans: Agriculture remained the principal occupation of settled communities in Islamic lands. The agricultural land was owned by small peasant, estate owners and state. The bulk of revenues came from agriculture taxes (Kharaj and Ushr) collected by Estate owners. Kharaj was paid at the rate of 1/5th to 1/2 of gross produce by non-muslims while as Muslims paid it concessional rate of 1/10th. To address the short falls in revenue, the Caliphs discouraged conversion. Later a uniform taxation policy was adopted. From 10th century onwards the state authorized its officials to claim their salaries from the revenues of part of agricultural territories called as Iqta. The state under took various measure like supporting irrigation system, constructing dams, and canals and digging wells to extend and ensure prosperity of agriculture. Further-more tax concessions were given to bring more land under cultivation.

Q: List some important factors for commercial Prosperity of central Islamic Lands?

Ans: The emergence of Islamic empire saw the increasing no cities to bring the commercial prosperity. The reasons which contributed in commercial prosperity of Central Islamic Lands are:

1. Political unification of distant tribes and regions together with increasing urban centers.

2. Geographically Central Islamic lands spread between the trading zones of Mediterranean and Indian Ocean and to Central Asia.

3. Besides warehouses for local consumption, Baghdad, Aleppo and Antioch emerged as centers of onward transmission of high value goods. Increasing demand for eastern products from Italian trading cities for Textiles, Spices, gunpowder etc.

4. Iranian merchants dominated world famous Silk route.

5. Use of coins (Dinar, Dirham) as mode of payment, Development of methods of letters of credit (Sukk) and bill of exchange increased commercial prosperity of Islamic Lands.

Q: Comment on the literary and intellectual life of Islamic Empire?

Ans: The establishment of vast Islamic Empire facilitated the coming together of intellectual and scientific traditions of various civilizations including Greek, Persian, Roman and Indian. It promoted critical enquiry and Arabs made all knowledge their own and developed it further.

1. The Ummayad’s and Abbassid caliphs particularly Caliph Al-Mamun made translation of important Greek and Syrian books through Christian translators a well- organized activity and established Library cum institute at Baghdad for scholars.

2. Works of great philosophers like Aristotle and works on astronomy, mathematics and Medicine were translated into Arabic.

3. In medicine Ibn Cena (Avicenna) wrote Al-Qanun-i-Fil Tib (Canons of Medicine) in which he wrote about importance of dietics for healing, true nature of smallpox and contagious nature of some diseases. Al-Razi (Rhazes) discovered that tuberculosis is infectious.

4. The Arabs learnt Numerals from Indians and made their spread so much that in the west they are called as Arabic Numerals. Omar Khayyam from Nishapur was well known mathematician and poet of time

5. The emphasis on Adb led to cultural and literary refinement e.g. Rubai and ghazal.

6. Patronage from ruler’s e.g, Shahnama of Firdausi.

Q: Discuss changes in Islamic Polity under the Ummayad’s?

Ans: The Ummayad’s dynasty of Banu Ummaya lasted from 661-750 CE. Among the changes introduced by the Ummayad in Islamic polity were:

1. Transfer of Capital from Kufa to Damascus in Syria and marginalisation of Arab influence.

2. Monarchial rule with dynastic principles was established, court ceremonies and administrative institutions of Byzantine Empire were adopted.

3. The Ummayad’s projected themselves as religious leaders but ultimately their power rested on state craft and loyalty of Syrian troops.

4. Each sector (province) was put under Amir or Ashraf which was main link between state and provincial govt.

5. Caliph Abd-al- Malik (685-705) created standing army with regular troops attempts were made to dissolve tribal loyalties. Tribal units were reconstituted into regiments.

6. Ummayad state was imperial power and Islamic identity was constituted to provide legitimacy to their rule.

Q: Discuss briefly how medieval Islamic cities were  designed? 

Ans: The profile of Islamic cities was under:

1. At the center of city were two large complexes – Congregational mosque and central market place, merchant lodgings and shops of money changers.

2. The homes of administrators (ayan), scholars and merchants (tujjar) were close to the city center.

3. Living quarters of ordinary citizens and soldiers were fitted with outer circle with its own mosque, subsidiary market, public bath etc.

4. The urban poor, market for vegetables and fruits, caravan stations and shops dealing with tanning and butchering were located on the outskirts of city.

5. Beyond the city walls were inns and cemeteries.

Variations if any were there depending on the nature of land scape, political traditions and historical events.

Q. Briefly discuss coinage reforms of Caliph Abd-al-Malik?

Ans: caliph Abd-al-Malik of Ummayad Dynasty brought many changes in Islamic Currency like gold dinar and Silver Dirham were copied from Byzantium Empire and removed portraits on coins with written inscriptions in Arabic Language.

Points to remember::

1. Bedouins: The nomadic tribe of Arabia.

2. Ummah: The followers of Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w).

3. Zakat: A religious tax collected from Muslim’s at the rate of 2.5 %.

4. Dhimmi: Non-Muslims collected who were free military services were given protection by Muslim state paid a tax called Dhimmi or Protection tax.

5. Hijri era Starts with the migration of Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) from Mecca to Medina in 622AD. Muslims in all parts of the globe use Hijri calendar for Islamic Rituals.

6. Gregorian calendar was introduced by Pope Gregory in 1582. Gregorian calendar has 365 days in year with leap year (366 days) in every fourth year.

7. Turks were the nomadic tribes from Central Asian Steppes of Turkistan. They were skilled horse riders and warriors. They entered Abbasids, Samanid and Buyid administration as slaves and rose to high position on account of their loyalty and military abilities.

8. Halagu Khan Mongol killed last Abbassid Khalifa Al-Mustasim in 1258.

9. Qahira City in Egypt is named after planet Mars (Mirikh in Arabic).

10. Ba-Shara Sufis: Those Sufis who were bound by the Sharia.

11. Be-Shara Sufis: Those Sufis who were not bound by Sharia.

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