An Empire across Three Continents (RomanEmpire) Unit 3rd Class 11th

 

Unit-3rd

RomanEmpire;

An Empire across Three Continents (RomanEmpire)

Q: If you had lived in Roman Empire, Where would you have rather lived—in the towns or in  the countryside? Explain Why?

Ans: In the Roman Empire one would have preferred to live in towns because:

1. Unlike countryside, towns & cities were subjected to less exploitation by aristocratic class and other wealthy persons.

2. Social hierarchies though pronounce were not suffocating as towns provided better employment opportunities in army, bureaucracy and participation in prosperous trade.

3. Towns were centers of affluence and culture. Towns were canters of art, learning and intellectual activities.

4. Famines though not uncommon had less impact on towns. According to Dr Galen, city dwellers stored grains for whole next year immediately after harvest.

5. Towns & cities had centers of attraction like Public baths, Circus, Theatrical displays. There were 176 days of spectacular shows in one year calendar.

Q: Compile a list of some of the Towns/Cities, Rivers, seas and Provinces as mentioned in the chapter and find them on map. Can you say something about any three  items  in the  list you have compiled?

Ans: (A) Following are the various lists as mentioned in chapter:

1. Towns/cities of Roman Empire: Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Carthage, Tangiers, Hyponym, Fayyum etc.

2. Rivers in Roman Empire: Rhine, Danube, Nile, Euphrates, and Guadalquivir.

3. Seas In Roman Empire: Mediterranean Sea, Adriatic Sea, Aegean Sea, Red sea and Black sea.

4. Provinces of Roman Empire: Gaul, Campania, Macedonia, Egypt, Tripolitania, Tunisia, Morocco, Numidia, Hispania, Baetica etc.

(B): Description about any three items as mentioned above:

1. Mediterranean Sea: The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa and on the east by the Levant It was the heart of Roman Empire. Roman Empire dominated all the regions around it in both north and south.

2. River Rhine and Danube: The Rhine is one of the major European rivers, which has its sources in Switzerland and flows in a mostly northerly direction through Germany and the Netherlands, emptying into the North Sea. The Danube known is Europe's second longest river, located in Central and Eastern Europe. The Danube was a long-standing frontier of the Roman Empire. Originating in Germany and its drainage basin extends into nine more countries before draining into the Black Sea. These rivers formed the northern boundary of Roman Empire. They acted as natural protection to Roman Empire from barbarian tribes of north.

3. Spain and Constantinople: Spain had vast tracts of cultivable land and mines. The growth of garrison towns, administrative urban centers and roman colonies became focal points of Latin culture in Spain. Constantinople in Modern Istanbul (Ancient Byzantium) was found by Emperor Constantine in 330CE. It strategically located and emerged as second capital of Roman Empire.

Q: Why do you think Roman government stopped coining in silver? 

And which metal did it begin to use for the production of coinage?

Ans: The Roman govt stopped coining the Silver coin popularly known as ‘Denarius’ (4 ½ gm of silver) because silver which was extracted from silver mines of Spain depleted. Thus, it was economically viable to mine the Spanish creating shortage of silver. Therefore Roman emperor Constantine started coining the gold coin ‘solidus’ because gold was available in abundance as a result of prosperous trade. Solidus coin was 4 ½ gm of gold.

Long Answer Type Questions

Q: Suppose the emperor Trojan had actually managed to conquer India and the Romans  had held on to the country for several centuries. In what ways do you  think  India  might  be different today’s?

Ans: According to Historian Cassius Dio, Roman Emperor Trojan (98-117CE) invaded Parthia in 116 and marched down the Euphrates up to Ctesiphon (Parthian capital) and then headed to Persian gulf where he was looking for a merchant ship to set off to India to conquer it. If he would have conquered and ruled it for long time, India would have different today in following ways:

1. Exchange of culture would have led to further diversity and flowering of both cultures.

2. Changes in art, Architecture, Literature and law; Exchange of Ideas e.g. Roman law would have helped growth of Indian Law.

3. Despite patriarchal society and gender biases, Indian women would have been given right to property and easy divorce.

4. Exploitation of Indian resources and Conversion to Christianity.

5. As Roman society was known for slave labour, Slavery would have probably become more common in India.

6. The pattern of Indian long distance would have gone vast changes.

Q: Go through the chapter carefully and pick out  some  basic  features  of  Roman  Society which you think make it look quite modern?

Ans: Some basic features of Roman Society are:

1. Nuclear family was norm; adult brothers rarely lived in same house.

2. Wife did not transfer to husband’s authority after marriage but retained her full rights in the parental family. Divorce was easy, mere legal notice of intent could dissolve marriage.

3. Considerable legal rights for woman to own and manage her property.

4. Slaver was common in Roman Empire. The position of slaves was very miserable.

5. Prevalence of vast diversity in religious cults, spoken languages, dress and food.

Q: Go through the chapter carefully and pick out  some basic  features of  Roman economy which you think make it look quite modern?

Ans: Some basic features of Roman Economy are:

1. Romans preferred to live in cities, and cities were the bed rock of Roman Imperial system. Cities provided better means of livelihood, and were safer places from famines and draughts.

2. Constant exchange of commodities like wheat, wine and olive oil between different regions, provinces and continents. Competition between different cities, regions and provinces for control of main markets.

3. Existence of well organised banking and exchange system. Wide spread use of money like denarius and solidus.

4. Use of hydraulic techniques to mine silver from silver mines of Spain.

AdditionalQuestions

Q. Slavery was institutionalized during Roman Empire. Discuss?

Ans: - In Rome it was slave mode of production. Greeco-Roman society is termed as Slave Society because slaves were employed on a large scale in production. These slaves worked in agricultural fields, mines, business establishments and domestic workers. They were completely subjugated to their master. They had no identity of their own. The number of slaves increased with the Roman expansion.

The Roman slaves were regarded as a form of property. They were treated as objects or commodities which could be bought and sold in the market. They had no rights and were degraded to the extent that they were often not even seen as human beings. The authority of the master over slave was absolute. Slaves retained no kingship ties and maintained no families. A Servus Publicus was a slave owned by Roman People as whole and worked in general public buildings. Slaves were divided into various categories like state-owned slaves employed in lowest level administration, skilled slaves worked as Latifundia (large estate lands) and semi-skilled & unskilled group who in agricultural lands or domestic servants.

Thus, Roman society followed slave mode of production where slaves were actual producers, but bulk of the surplus was taken by the slave owners. Therefore, slave labour was institutionalized and slavery became one of the Rome’s greatest sources of economic wealth.

Q: Why is Roman Empire called as the Mosaic of Cultures?

Ans: Roman Empire was culturally more diverse than Iranian Empire, held together by common system of govt. The cultural diversity was reflected in many ways and at many levels.

1. Roman Empire included diversity of religious cults and deities e.g. they worshipped Jupiter, Mars, Diana, Minerva etc

2. The Roman citizens spoke many languages like Latin, Greek, Coptic, Berber, Celtic etc.

3. Diversity in Pattern of settlement, style of dress, food and costumes.

4. Diversity in forms of social organization like tribal and non-tribal.

Q: Write short note on Third century Crisis?

Ans: The first two centuries of Roman Empire were by and large a period of peace, prosperity and economic expansion. However, third century brought major signs of crises like:

1. The increasing control of provincial aristocracy on local revenues weakened state authority and promoted localized centers of power.

2. Increasing military and bureaucratic cost of maintaining the empire as possibilities of expansion was exhausted.

3. The emergence of aggressive Sassanian dynasty in Iran in 225 BCE.

4. The German Tribal Confederacies (Barbarians) notably Alamanni, Franks, and Goths repeatedly put danger by crossing River Rhine and Danube.

In just 47 years (233-280) Roman Empire saw the repeated succession of 25 Emperors.

This was both cause and symptom of Third Century crisis.

Q: Who were the three players in Roman Empire’s Political history?

Ans: The Emperor, Senate and Army were the three important players in the history of Roman Empire.

A. Emperor: The emperor was initially called as Principe (Leading Citizen) out of the respect for senate. He retained all outward forms of the republic. Theoretically he had to have the sanction of the senate and the army, but in actual practice he was the only real source of authority. The Senate and Army gave the stamp of legitimacy to an emperor and made his rule relatively stable.

B. The Senate: The senate comprises of the wealthiest families of Roman and Italian descent mainly land owners. The Aristocracy exercised its power through an oligarchical council called Senate. The senate was single most important center of authority. The functioning of senate was controlled by emperor through his officials. The Roman history written by members of senate was thus critical or praise depending upon the treatment of senators by emperor.

C. The Army:   Unlike The Persian army, the Romans had a professional and paid army. It was the largest single body in the empire (6lac in 4thcent) and certainly had the power to determine the fate of emperors. When the army was divided result usually was civil war.

Q. Which methods Romans used to control labour?

Ans: Romans used various methods to control labour like chaining of slaves, dividing workers into squads to enable supervision, certain dresses for workers to ensure easy identification, checking through security guards while leaving the premises, and carry identification cards to maintain entry and exit time of worker.

Q: Write Short note on Roman Republic?

Ans:- Rome according to local legend was found by two brothers i.e. Romulus and Remus which is doubtful to most of the scholars now. Rome was a small trading Post that the Latin’s found on the river Tiber banks.

The Roman Republic was established in 509 BCE to 27 BCE. But its rise is somewhat ambiguous. During the long period the Romans had to see many ups and downs. The Romans made themselves the supreme power in the whole peninsula of Italy. They won all round conquests in Spain, France, Africa, Carthage, Egypt, and Greece up to the banks of Euphrates in west Asia. Various generals and administrators like Pompey, Caesar, Crassus, Antony and Octavian (Augustus) greatly added to the name of Rome.

Organization: The officials i.e. Two Consuls of Roman Republic were elected every year. They had power to execute laws, lead the army and act as check to each other by exercising

veto power. To elect and guide Consuls there was senate consisting of the heads of Patrician families. During national crisis and in emergency the senate elected an honest person as “Dictator” for six months.

Q; Write short note on the establishment of Roman Empire?

OR

 Emperor Octavian brought an era of peace (Pax Romana), discuss how?

Ans: In 31 BCE, Octavian popularly known as Augustus (Adopted son of Julius Ceaser) defeated the Egyptian queen Cleopatra and Mark Antony in the famous battle of Actium. The victory at Actium led to the establishment of a new era in roman History called as Principate (Leading citizen) or Roman Empire. During his 44 year rule (31BCE-14CE) he reorganized administrative system, brought reforms, put an end to corruption and plunders, strengthened law and order, established new courts and postal services. Thus, he ushered an era of peace which lasted for more than two hundred years called as Pax Romana (Roman Peace). However in third century the Senate lost all authority and the Imperator or Emperor became absolute. Emperor Constantine (306-337) declared Christianity as the official religion Constantinople as second capital Of Roman Empire. Thus, Roman Empire was divided into two empire- Eastern (With Constantinople as Capital) and Western (with Rome as Capital). In 476 the chiefs of Barbarians invaded western half of Roman Empire and broke it into pieces.

Q:- What is meant by Patricians and Plebeians? Narrate the struggle between Patrician and Plebeians?

Ans: (a) Patricians: The Patricians were close-knit elite. They were economically, socially and politically dominant group. A citizen born was a Patrician. One could not become patrician by merely acquiring wealth or political power. However being born a patrician meant automatic access to power, wealth, and a high social and ritual status.

(b) Plebeians: The Plebeians were a common people and included farmers, small traders, laborers and soldiers. To be born a plebian meant belonging to an unprivileged class, with very little control over land and other means of production. The Conflict between the Patricians and Plebeians is often referred as clash of orders.

Q; Give a brief account of religious cultures in the Roman Period?

Ans: The traditional religious cultures of Roman Empire were Polytheists involved multiplicity of cults and gods which include besides eastern deities, Roman/Italian gods. The 12 major gods were Jupiter (Chief god), Juno, Neptune, Minerva, Mars, Venus, Apollo, Diana, Vulcan, Vesta, Mercury and Ceres. The gods were worshipped in Temples, Shrines and sanctuaries throughout the empire. The other religious tradition of Roman Empire was Judaism. Judaism was not a monolithic religion either. There was a great deal of diversity within the Jewish communities.

The 4th century Rome was marked by momentous development in religious life when Emperor Constantine embraced Christianity and made it his official religion. The Christianization of Roman Empire was gradual and complex process. Polytheism did not disappear overnight but Christian Bishops waged a running battle against traditional beliefs and practices. Later on Church authorities rein in their followers and enforced a rigid set of beliefs and practices.

Q; Give some differences between in the social structure/ hierarchies of the Early and Late Roman Empire?

Ans; In the Roman Empire, the period from beginning down to third century is called as the Early Empire and the period thereafter as Late Roman Empire. The major differences in Social Structure/Hierarchies were:

Early Empire:

1. Senators (Patre lit. father) half of which came from Italian descent.

2. Leading members of the Equestrian class (Non Italian Aristocracy).

3. Respectable sections of society, those attached with great houses.

4. The unkempt lower class (Plebs) who were addicted to circus and theatrical displays.

5. Finally, the slaves.

Late Empire:

 late Roman Empire starts with the reign of Emperor Constantine (306-337).

a. The Senators and Equestrians merged into a unified and expanded aristocracy.

b. The Middle Class now consisted of enormous mass of bureaucrats, army, prosperous merchants and farmers.

c. The Lower class was known collectively as humiliores. They comprised the rural labor force, workers in industrial and mining establishments, migrant workers, self-employed artisans, and a large mass of casual laborers and slaves.

Q. Briefly discuss causes of decline of Roman Empire?

Ans: Roman Empire declined because of highly exploitative Roman Social Formation, Crises in Slave mode of production, increasing bureaucratic and military expenditure, monetary crises, parasitic nature of Rome, monetary and internal crises of Roman Empire.

Q.  Give an account of main sources of Roman Empire?

Ans: The sources of Roman Empire can be divided into three groups (a) Texts (b) documents and (c) material remains. Textual sources include Annals, letters, speeches and laws. Documentary sources like Inscriptions written on stone in Greek and Latin and Papyrus. Material remains like buildings, pottery, monuments etc.

Points to remember:

1. Roman Empire dominated Mediterranean Sea and extended in Europe up to River Rhine and Danube in North and Sahara desert in Africa in south.

2. Mediterranean Sea was the Heart of Roman Empire.

3. Principate: The regime established by Augustus the first Emperor of Roman Empire.

4. Papyrus: A reed like plant that grew along the banks of river Nile and was processed to produce a writing material.

5. Slave Breeding: With the establishment of peace, less warfare and decline in supply of slave labour, the masters of slave labour started breeding slaves. They encouraged female slaves and their partners to have more children who would also be used as slaves.

6. Conscription: A compulsory enlistment of people for some national service.

7. Denarius: A small coin in Roman Empire weighing 4 and ½ grams of pure silver.

8. Barbarians: a person who is perceived as uncultured and uncivilized.

9. Dressel 20: A container carried the Spanish Olive oil.

10. Amphorae: The large storage container of different shapes and sizes used to transport commodities especially liquids like wine and oil.

11. Antiquity: Any period before the middle ages between 476-1453 CE or Ancient Past.

12. Principate: The period of Roman Empire between 27 BCE to 284 CE.

13. The two principal Languages of Roman Empire were Greek and Latin.

14. Augustian Age: The period of rule of Emperor Augustus (Octavian) from 27 BCE to 14CE.

15. Late Antiquity: The final and attractive period in the Roman evolution and break up of Empire.

16. Diocletian: Roman Emperor from 284-305 CE who established real emperorship.

17. The history of contemporary period as written by contemporary historians is called annals. It is written on annual basis.

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