Mesopotamian Civilization' Unit II Class 11th History

 

Unit-II

'Mesopotamian Civilization'

Q: Why do we say that it was not  natural fertility and high level of food production that  were the causes of early urbanization?

Ans: Natural fertility and high level of food production are one of the contributory factors for early urbanization as it frees a part of population from subsistence tasks to full time craft production. The other factors which led to concentration in a particular settlement of a large population are:

1. Development of economy in other spheres like trade, manufacture and services.

2. Division and specialization of labour.

3. Elaborate political arrangements for controlling and regulating settlements.

4. Efficient, cheap and well developed means of water transport to enable easy economic exchanges.

5. Technological advancement e.g, in metallurgy.

6. Development of writing to keep record of transactions which occurred at different times among different people, involving a variety of goods.

Q: Which of the following were  necessary  conditions  and  which  the  causes,  of  early urbanization,  which  would  you  say  were  the  outcome  of  growth  of  cities: 

(A)  Highly productive  Agriculture  

(B)  Water  transport  

(C)  Division  of  labour 

 
(D)  lack  of  Metals  and Stones 

(E) the use of seals 

(F)  The  Military  power  of  king  that  made  labour  compulsory?

 Ans: Highly productive agriculture, Water transport and division of labour were necessary conditions and causes of early urbanization while as Lack of Metals and stones, the use of seals and the growth of military power of kings were direct outcome of emergence of cities.

A. Necessary conditions and Causes:

1. Highly productive agriculture: freed a part of population for non-subsistence tasks like trade, craft, manufacturing and service which led to division and specialization of labour and employment in such spheres, a condition important for emergence of cities.

2. Water transport: the cheap, efficient and well developed transport through river Tigris, Euphrates and their tributaries and distributaries enabled transport of goods between large and small settlements, cities and rural areas and between Mesopotamia and other countries, a condition necessary for emergence of cities.

3. Division or specialization of labour: enabled city people with different skills to seek employment in the spheres other than agriculture.

4. Lack of metals and stones: the specialization of labour and lack of metals and stones in cities forced Mesopotamia population to engage in regular exchange with people from turkey and Iran for gold, silver, copper, wood, stones etc.

B. Outcome of Cities:

1. Use of seals: Seals were used by the people from Mesopotamia cities to authenticate the exchange of goods, to give validity to land transfers, king’s orders or change in laws etc.

2. The growth of military power of king and compulsory labour was direct outcome of emergence of cities. The expansion of military power was an outcome to manage disputes, organise raids and foreign expeditions, & to undertake monumental public works

Q: Why were mobile animal herders not necessarily a threat to town life?

Ans: Mobile animal herders were not necessarily a threat to town life because agriculture and animal herding was carried out close to each other in southern Mesopotamia. Animal herders need to exchange young animals, milk, cheese, and meat in return for grain and metals, thereby adding to trade and commerce. The nomadic communities of western desert filtered in to prosper agricultural fields and served as harvest laborer’s, or hired soldiers. Some animal herders settled in Mesopotamia cities became prosperous. They adopted Mesopotamian culture and cuneiform script. A few gained power to establish their rule for example Akkadians, Amorites, Assyrians and Aramaens. These nomads added to the vitality of Mesopotamian culture.

Q: Why would the early Temples have been much like an ordinary house?

(OR)

In early Bronze Age Mesopotamia Temples was State. Discuss the role of temple in Mesopotamia Civilization?

Ans: Mesopotamia Temples played an important role in the Mesopotamian history. Temples like other houses were the residencies of gods like Nanna, Anu, Enki and Innana. The early temples were smaller in size made of unbaked bricks with regular inward and outward bent to outer walls. The elaborate, hill top like pyramidal temples are called as Ziggurats. These temples were centers of worship and rites. Each town had its own temple and gods as the protector. However, with the passage of time temple became an institution increasing its importance and size. The Temple had courtyard, central room for god’s image, several dwelling rooms for priests and workers, warehouses and workshops. The early Mesopotamia

rulers were priests who lived and administered from temples. Most of the inhabitants were supposed to be in the service of temples. Tribute was collected in the name of deity. Thus, Temple symbolized community as whole and was the nucleus around which city developed.

Q: Of the new institutions that come into being once city life had begun, which would have depended on the initiatives of king?

Ans: Mesopotamia civilization saw the rise of many popular cities like Ur, Lagash, Babylon, Mari, etc from about 3000BC. The city life resulted into coming into being of new institutions trade, division of labour, specialisation, stratified society etc. Of these the developments which would have depended on the initiatives of king were:

1. Trade: the cheap and well developed water transport from north to south in Tigris and Euphrates and lack of Metals, Stones, and wood led to regular exchange of goods. The poem of Enmerker points out how king organised foreign expeditions and exchanges for wood, copper, tin, silver, gold shell, and stones like Lapis lazuli. Thus a group of specialist’s traders on the directions of king might have procured such items from Turkey, Iran, Cyprus (Alashiya) and Meluha.

2. Growth of towns and military organisation: the growth of towns was followed by continuous warfare among neighboring states to control fertile lands and augment the surplus. To protect ones city state and gain supremacy over others necessitated growth of military power under a powerful king. The king provided leadership in war and successful campaigns enhanced his prestige.

3. Temples: development of temples from a small shrine to large structures like ziggurats also depended on the initiatives of king. The poem of Enmerkar shows how the victorious kings offered precious booty to gods and temple construction and decoration to earn high status in society.

4. Writing: The regular exchange at different times among different people involving many goods in temples ruled by priest king necessitated writing to keep record of transactions, land transfers and new laws. The poem of Enmerkar points out that it was kingship which organised writing when the messenger got “weary of mouth” and got all the messages mixed up. Early writing was in the form of pictures, signs and symbols.

Q: What do ancient stories tell us about Mesopotamia Civilization?

Ans: We get glimpse of Mesopotamia in Old Testament of Bible. In the Book of Genesis (Old Testament) there is reference to ‘Shimar’ perhaps Sumar as a land of brick built cities. By trying to locate the tablet of flood (as mentioned in Bible) there has been attempts by European scholars and archeologists to prove the literal truth of Old Testament.

According to Bible, “the flood was meant to destroy all life on earth. The almighty assigned the task of sustaining earth to a man Noah. Noah built a huge ship and took a pair of each species of animals and birds on board the ark. Thus, when flood destroyed all life, the ark remained safe along with the pair of species. Thus, began a new life on this earth.

There is reference to a similar story in Mesopotamia records. However instead of Noah the records mention hero as Ziusudra or Utnapishtim.

Q: What do you mean by Mesopotamia?

Ans: The word Mesopotamia is derived from two Greek words- ‘Mesos’ means between and ‘Potamia’ means rivers or the land between two rivers that is Tigres and Eupharates which is modern Iraq. The four important centers of this civilization were Sumer, Akkad, Babylonia and Assyria.

Q: Why was the development of art of writing important?

OR 

How pictographic script came into prominence?

Ans: the Mesopotamians are regarded the first people who invented script to write their language. In the Beginning, It was in the form of Pictograms, signs, symbols and pictures and later they devised a cuneiform script at Sumer around 4000 BCE. They used to write from right to left on wet Clay tablets with sharp end of stylus (Wedge shaped). These clay tablets were first sun dried and then baked. The writing developed in temples for keeping elaborate records. There are about 350 characters and each character represents a syllable. Development of art of writing was important for keeping record of transactions, giving legal effect to land transfers, narrate deeds of kings, and making and changes in customary laws of land.

Q; Describe the early urban society of Mesopotamia?

(OR)

“There was a great disparity among the different sections of Mesopotamian society” Discuss?

Ans: Mesopotamia Society was marked by distinctions and constituted of three classes’ i.e, Upper Class, Middle Class and Lower Class.

1. Upper class: The first or elite class consists of King, Priests, Officials, Rich Merchants and businessmen. Though a small section of society but had major share in wealth as evident from enormous riches in graves like golden jewelry, vessels etc. The king held highest position in society followed by priests and govt officials. They led a luxurious life, built magnificent palaces, wore costly clothes and eat sumptuous food. They were served by many men and women slaves.

2. Middle Class: the second class consists of land owners, merchants, craftsmen and shopkeepers. They lived life full of comforts but neither too much luxurious nor miserable.

3. Lower Class: The lower was constituted by laborers, Prisoners of war and slaves. The lived a miserable life. Their dead bodies were buried with ordinary pots indicates the great disparity in Mesopotamia Society. The temples and royal households were served by large no of slaves.

Position of woman:

The structure of society was patriarchal; women were denied access to property and husband or eldest male of family controlled property and exercised absolute power. Marriage knot was tied with consent from bride’s family followed by gifts from both sides. The father’s house, herds and fields were inherited by sons. Divorce was a male prerogative. The common reason for divorce was failure to give birth to sons.

Q: The Kingdom of Mari was not militarily strong yet it was exceptionally prosperous. Discuss?

Ans: around 2000 BCE the royal capital of Mari flourished as prosperous town. Mari stood not in the fertile agricultural plains of south but further upstream on river Eupharates. Animal rearing especially sheep and goat was the main occupation of people as some of them were farmers too. The nomadic communities from western desert filtered into Mari and provided milk, meat, leather & wool. They also acted as harvest laborers, herders and hired soldiers and became prosperous and settled down in Mari. They gained power and ruled as Akkadians, Assyrians, Amorites and Aramaens.

People of Mari profited from trade both upstream and down-stream in wood, tin, copper, oil wine, barley and various other goods. They levied 10 Percent charge of value goods as tax before allowing the boats to move.

Q: Write Short note on trade of Mesopotamia?

Ans: The cheap and well developed transport of two major river systems i.e, Tigris and Eupharates from north to south in Persian Gulf, their tributaries and distributaries provided easy mode of water transport. Mesopotamia was also lacking Metals, Stones, and wood which intern led to regular exchange of goods. From king Enmerkers poem it’s clear that wood, copper, tin, silver, gold shells and stones like Lapis lazuli were traded into Mesopotamia in return for agricultural produce. The poem also points out how king organised foreign expeditions and exchanges in order to procure these items. Thus, a group of specialist’s traders on the directions of king might have procured such items from Turkey, Iran, Cyprus (Alashiya) and Meluha. Mesopotamia was poor in these resources and they were essential for manufacture of tools, vessels, temples and ornaments.

Q: Write short note on the contribution of  Mesopotamia  civilization  to  world  civilization?

 Ans: Mesopotamians contribution to world civilization is:

1. Mesopotamians were the first to use potter’s wheel.

2. Introduce Written Code of Laws.

3. Make glassware items.

4. Use arch, dome and pillar’s to support roof instead of wood and stones.

5. They were first to develop a script, reading rooms and libraries.

6. They were first to enter in to written trade agreements.

7. They divided year into 12 months (lunar Calendar) and month into 4 weeks, day into 24 hours, hour into 60 minutes and minute into 60 seconds.

Q. Write short note on Gilgamesh Epic?

Ans: The Epic of Gilgamesh written on 12 Tablets in 2000 BCE is finest piece of literature. Gilgamesh was ruler of Uruk around 2700 BCE. He was brave and subjugated several areas. The wickedness of king forced people to pray god Anu for a savior. God Anu sent Enkidu to fight against Gilgamesh. In the end the two became friends. As Enkidu fell in love with a

dancing girl, this enraged gods who killed Enkidu. The death of his friend made Gilgamesh to grapple with question whether he too will die someday? The untiring efforts and saint Utnipishtams plant could not formula could not make him immortal. Thus, he reached conclusion that man can never become immortal.

Q. Why Mesopotamia is called as land of geographical diversities?

Ans: - Mesopotamia is land of diverse environments. In the North east lie green plains supporting agriculture as early as 7000-6000BCE. The table land (steppe) of North with diverse flora supported pastoralism. To the East the tributaries of river Tigris provide navigable routes to mountains of Iran. In west river Euphrates and its tributaries and distributaries support water transport and separate it from Arabian Peninsula. The South is desert and this is place where urbanization and writing emerged first because of the fertile silt and water for irrigation from Tigris and Euphrates.

Points to Remember:

1. Ur, Uruk, Lagash, Mari, Kish, Nimrud, Babylon, Nineveh etc

2. Enmerker was the founder of Uruk. Gilgamesh declared it as his capital.

3. Alashiya- the island of Cyprus was famous for copper.

4. Sumerian was the earliest language of Mesopotamians.

5. Dagan was the main Deity/god of people of Mari.

6. King Zimrillim of Mari built the famous palace in 1810-1760 BCE for royal residence and hub of administration. It was built on 2.4 hectares. The palace had 260 rooms, and beautiful wall paintings. It was most extensive of contemporary palaces so much so that the rulers of Syria and Aleppo personally came to see the grandeur of Mari Palace.

7. The Mesopotamians used languages: Sumerian (up to 2400 BCE), Akkadian (2400-1400 BCE) and Aramaic similar to Hebrew (from 1400).

8. Mesopotamian Seals were two types- rectangular stamp seals and Cylindrical. The seal was pierced in the middle and then rolled to incise picture and writing. These seals were used to indicate the authority or ownership.

***********************************************