THEMES IN WORLD HISTORY
'From the beginning of Time'
Unit- 1
Q: Discuss briefly the Evolution of Man?
Ans: The origin of human beings is a long and complicated story. The widely accepted view of man’s coming into being is Darwin’s theory of Evolution. The chronology of the several events in man’s journey of life from its origin to the much later times has to be changed due to new discoveries and excavations made so far. Many scientists believe that the gradual evolution of man took place from animals – monkeys and apes. Moreover in scientific terminology both belong to the same order i.e, advanced primates.
1. Hominoids: Primates a sub-group of Mammals emerged about 36 MYA in Africa. Subsequently, there emerged a subgroup among primates called Hominoids which include Apes having smaller brain than Hominids, quadrupeds but flexible forelimbs.
2. Hominids: Hominids evolved from Hominoids about 5.6 MYA.. Hominids had large brain than Hominoids, Upright posture, and bipedal locomotion. There was a marked difference in the hand, which enables the making and use of tools. Hominids are further subdivided into branches known as Genus of which Australopithecus and Homo are important.
a. Australopithecus: Literally “Southern Man”. The name was given because this earliest form of Humans still retained some features of an Ape such as small brain size (400CC), Large back teeth and limited dexterity of hand, Upright walking was restricted as they still spent a lot of time on trees. Their earliest evidences come from Laetoli (Tanzania) and Hadar (Ethiopia).
b. Homo: In comparison to Australopithecus, Homo has larger brain, jaws with reduced outward protrusion and smaller teeth. The change in jaws and teeth is related to differences in dietary habits.
I. Homo Habilis: literally “Tool Making Man” fossils dated back to 2.2 to 1.8 MYA These Fossils has been found from Omo (Ethiopia) and Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania). Homo Habilis had bigger brain (700CC) than Australopithecus, specialisation in hand to make tools. He also had Broca’s area in the left side brain to produce sounds.
II. Homo Erectus: Homo erectus or Upright man’s evidences have been found at Koobi Foora and west Turkana, Kenya, Modjokerto and Sangiran in Java dated back to 1-8 to
0.8 MYA. Homo Erectus had larger brain (1000 CC) than Homo Habilis, Upright Posture, Bi-pedal Locomotion and learnt the use of fire (E.g Chesowanja in Kenya).
III. Homo Sapiens: Homo sapiens or Anatomically Modern Man originated some 0.19 to 0.16 MYA with 1250 to 1450 CC brain size. The earliest evidences of Homo sapiens come from Omo Kibish, Border caves, Die Kleders, Dar-es-Sultan etc. Homo Heidelbergensis and Homo Neanderthansis found in Germany were Archaic Homo Sapiens.
Thus, emerged the Modern Man through a long process of evolution about 190000 Years ago.
Q: Humans and mammals such as apes and monkeys have certain similarities in behavior and anatomy. This indicates that humans possibly evolved from apes. List these similarities/resemblances in Anatomy and Behavior separately?
Ans: The origin of human beings is a long and complicated story. The widely accepted view of man’s coming into being is Darwin’s theory of Evolution. The chronology of the several events in man’s journey of life from its origin to the much later times has to be changed due to new discoveries and excavations made so far. Many scientists believe that the gradual evolution of man took place from animals – monkeys and apes. Moreover in scientific terminology both belong to the same order i.e, advanced primates.
A. Similarities in Behavior:
1. Both give birth to young ones and female secretes milk to feed them. Both carry their babies with them.
2. Both have the ability to walk upright on two lower limbs.
3. Both use tools, however, humans are unique in tool making.
4. Both use sound as a medium of communication and are endowed with greater understanding than other animals.
B. Similarities in Anatomy:
1. Both are warm-blooded and have the ability to maintain constant body temperature.
2. Both have body hair.
3. Female gives birth to live offspring's and have a relatively long period of gestation. Females have mammary glands which secrete milk to feed young ones.
4. Both have a backbone with a column of discs enclosing spinal cord.
C. Differences between Humans and Mammals:
1. While mammals like apes use tools but they do not use them on a regular basis like humans.
2. Monkeys and apes are quadrupeds while humans are bipeds and walk upright on their lower limbs. The prehensile hands and feet of monkeys and apes allow them to climb trees with greater ease.
3. Monkeys and apes have a stereoscopic vision which helps them to gauge distance and depth.
4. While both use sound as a means of communication but human vocal cords have the ability to make a variety of sound i.e, numerous spoken languages.
Q: Discuss the arguments in favor of Regional Continuity Model and replacement Model of human origin? Give convincing explanations of the more suitable model?
Ans: While it is generally agreed that humans are the product of evolution as other living organisms. The issue of the place of origin of humans has been a topic of much debate. Two divergent views have been expounded. They are.
1. Regional continuity Model or Multi-regional Evolution: According to regional continuity model, human beings first evolved independently as archaic Homo sapiens and then to fully Modern humans in different regions at different rates. The argument is based on the regional differences of present day human beings. These dissimilarities are due to the pre-existing differences between Homo erectus and Homo Heidelbergensis who occupied the same regions and differences in time at which Human beings came into being e.g, Ethiopia 190000- 160000 YA, south Africa 120000-50000 YA, Morocco 70000-50000 YA, France 35000 YA, Borneo 40000 YA.
According to this model, between 2 and 1 MYA, a generic Homo ancestor of ours spread across the warmer latitudes of Africa, Middle East, Asia and perhaps Southern Europe as well. Although there was divergence due to local and differential environment, but they were evolving towards Homo Sapiens as a result of gene flow through mating and mutation, that connected all human groups to some extent. Some of Homo sapiens evolved into fully modern humans earlier than others and had physical differences that distinguished modern Europeans, Asians and Africans.
2. Replacement Model or African Origin or Out of Africa Model: Replacement Model hypothesizes that modern human beings first evolved in Africa few thousand years ago. This model visualizes the complete replacement everywhere of all older forms of humans with modern humans. According to this view, the man was first born in Africa (where earliest fossil of modern humans are found) from where he spread to different parts of the world. Once they evolved as Homo Sapiens Sapien, they travelled out of Africa to colonise and explore other areas of world, replacing all other older hominid forms with little or no genetic interchange. In support of their view, scholars use the evidence of anatomical and genetic homogeneity of modern humans (95:05). The enormous similarities are due their descent from a population that originated in a single region. On the basis of Mitochondrial DNA analysis, it has been proved that a small group of modern humans left Africa somewhere 70000 YA and replaced archaic humans in different parts of the world. The physical differences are due adaptations to various environments.
Intermediate or Assimilation Model: accepts an African origin for modern humans but rejects the notion of total replacement or migration of African as the mechanism for evolution of Modern Humans. The model suggests genetic hybridization, gene flow and regional pattern of evolution as factor leading to evolution of Modern Humans.
Q: Tool making is best documented in the archeological records, discuss?
Ans: Tool making is best documented in archeological records because the proof remains of tools are so abundantly found in various places especially in caves. The need to acquire meat
for food, trap fur-bearing animals both for food and clothing, to dig earth and tools and weapons for protection from wild animals necessitated tool making.
Early man used various techniques like the stone on stone, pressure flaking and punch blade technique to make various types of tools. These tools include Hand Axe, Choppers, Cleavers, Flakes tools like burins, borers, knives and spear throwers and bow and arrow came from 35000 YA. However, with the passage of time, the size and shape of stone tools changed from large and rough to small and polished. On the basis of tool types found at various places, the ancient prehistoric period has been divided into Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic ages.
Q: Discovery of fire is regarded as an important invention in the life of primitive man. Why?
Ans: Discovery of the fire was the most wonderful achievement of early man. The man was of course known to fire and feared it from the beginning but he did not know how to control the fire. The scaring of dreadful animals and the taste of the roasted meat might have led to the controlled use of fire. He learned controlled use of fire by rubbing two sticks among dried twigs, or by striking two flints together to make sparks and kindles fires which he himself could control and use.
The discovery of fire helped man to protect him from dreaded animals by scaring them through fire, cook food, light caves, keep warm, and harden the tips of the wooden spears and to make better weapons for hunting. Thus, the invention of fire is regarded as an important stage in the advancement of man towards culture and civilization.
Q: Discuss how early man used to procure food?
Ans: Early man was not a food producer because the cultivation of crops was still unknown. He obtained food through a number of ways such as Gathering, Scavenging, Hunting, and Fishing.
1. Gathering: Early man is generally assumed to have collected food like seeds, fruits, nuts, berries, tubers, from nature.
2. Scavenging: early man began scavenging carcasses of dead animals died naturally or killed by predators for food and marrow. It is equally possible that small animals such as rodents, birds and their eggs, reptiles, and insects were eaten by early man.
3. Hunting: the clear evidence for hunting and butchery of animals comes from Boxgrove (England) about 5lac YA and Schoningen (Germany) about 4lac YA. However the first deliberate and planned hunting comes from Dolni Vestonice of Czech Republic about 35000 YA. The pieces of evidence of the killing of large no of birds and animals on the banks of the river during autumn and spring season when these animals migrate. Historians conclude that these people had the knowledge of these migrations and they deliberately chose the site for hunting.
4. Fishing: Early man also obtained food by fishing. Early man caught fish from rivers and ponds through hooks and harpoons.
Q: Early man was an artist. Discuss giving examples?
Ans: Painting developed around the same time as language (40,000-35,000). It marks an
entirely new phase in human history, as with art humans took a giant cultural leap. The discovery of roof paintings of Altamira caves (Spain) in 1879 by Marcilino de Sanz Sautuola and his daughter Maria followed by cave paintings of Lascaux and Chauvet in France (1894) gave us an idea about the paintings of early man. These paintings reached the highest stage around 18,000-11,000YA (Magdalena) when Homo-Sapiens had spread to different parts of the world. These paintings include the depiction of bison, horse, ibex, deer, rhino, hyena, owls, etc.
Early man was an artist. The paintings were stylistic, realistic and colored with natural pigments like red, yellow, blue and violet. The theme in these paintings painted on walls and ceilings were various animals and hunting scenes. The purpose was to memorize the hunting experience or share the same with future generations.
Early man also made small-sized statues depicting animals and humans. He engraved various sketches on the walls of caves he lived in.
Q: Discuss briefly the development of language?
Ans: Early man used to communicate with each through art and verbal language. Initially, he used hominids used gesture or hand movements to communicate. After some time he communicated using non-verbal communicative sound and finally some calls became the permanent words and man started using verbal language to communicate with fellow beings. The brain of Homo Habilis (2MYA) had some features which would have made it possible for him to speak. However, the vocal tract evolved around 2lac YA. Some scholars believe that art like painting and language emerged at the same time (40,000-35,000YA) as both are the means of communication.
Q: Write a brief note on early man's shelters?
Ans: Early man lived on the branches of trees like other primates. However, from 4lac to 1lac 25000 years ago he started living in caves and open-air sites. In the Lazaret caves of southern France, a 12×4 meter shelter built against cave wall with two hearts and evidence food resources. From 125000 man started living in huts. Terra Amata in southern Coastal France has evidence of flimsy shelters with a thatched roof made of wood and stone flakes. Living in caves proved beneficial for man as he protected himself in caves from wild animals and harsh weathers.
Q: Discuss the extent to which hunting and construction of shelters would have been facilitated by the use of language? What other modes of communication would have been used for these activities?
Ans: Early man used to communicate with each through art and verbal language. Initially, he used hominids used gesture or hand movements to communicate. After some time he communicated using non-verbal communicative sound and finally some calls became the permanent words and man started using verbal language to communicate with fellow beings.
A. Hunting: Use of language helped hunting by:
1. Verbal communication of organizing and managing hunting expeditions.
2. The free exchange of hunting experiences and ideas about animals from different regions.
3. By discussing the nature and behavior of different animals and different types of tools to be used in particular hunting.
B. Construction of Shelters: Use of language helped in Construction of Shelters by:
1. People could discuss secure and safe places for the construction of shelters.
2. Discuss the means and techniques of construction of shelters and protection of their shelters from wild beasts and severe climatic conditions.
3. And people can share information about materials used in the construction of shelters. Other modes of communication were signs, symbols, cave paintings, wall engravings, etc.
Q: What is Ethnography? What according to you are the advantages and disadvantages of using ethnographic accounts in reconstructing the lives of earliest people?
Ans: The word 'ethnography' is derived from the Greek ethnos, meaning "a company, people, nation" and ‘graphy’ meaning "writing". Ethnography is the study of contemporary cultural groups. Ethnography focus on large cultural groups of people who interact over time. The study of these contemporary ethnic groups is called ethnography. Ethnography deals with their modes of living, ritual, custom & traditions, technology, gender roles and political institutions. Ethnographic accounts had both advantages and disadvantages in reconstructing the lives of early hunter gatherer societies because:
1. Ethnography interprets the archeological remains of past. E.g. by observing migratory practice Hadza and Kung San, some archeologists have suggested hominids sites along Lake Turkana could have been dry seasonal camps of early humans.
2. Ethnography helps in understanding the gender role e.g, role of woman in food supply.
3. Ethnography is a means to represent graphically and in writing the culture of a group.
4. Ethnography makes a substantial contribution toward the understanding of the social life of humans, have an aesthetic impact on the reader, and express a credible reality.
However the variations in observations present conflicting data on many issues like importance of Hunting-gathering, group size, or migratory practices. While in general women gather and men hunt, but there are societies where men and woman hunt, gather and make tools together. Thus, because of the inbuilt limitations many scholars hold the view that Ethnographic data has disadvantages with regard to the reconstruction of lives of the people of the past.
Q: What is Fossil?
Ans: The remains of whole or part of formerly living organisms like plants and animals preserved for millions of years by natural causes in crystal rocks is called a fossil.
Q: Who was Charles Darwin?
Ans: Charles Darwin is the author of book ONTHEORIGINOFSPECIESpublished in Nov 1859 in which explained how different species emerged as a result of evolution and survival of fittest species.
Q: Define Species?
Ans: The term Special is used to describe the group of organisms that can breed to produce fertile offspring's. Member's one species cannot mate with other species to produce fertile ones.
Q. What do you mean by term Primates?
Ans: Primates are a subgroup of mammals like monkeys, Apes, and Humans.
Q: What are the artifacts?
Ans: Artifacts are manmade objects like tools, pottery, paintings, sculptures, etc.
Q. Explain Hominids?
Ans: Hominids in general means all forms of Human Beings. His distinctive features are Large brain, Upright posture, bipedal locomotion, and specialization of hand.
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