THEME – 8 BHAKTI-SUFI TRADITIONS
CHANGES IN RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND DEVOTIONAL TEXTS
(8th TO 18th CENTURY)
ShortAnswerTypeQuestions:
Q. Explain with examples what historians mean by the integration of cults?
Ans:- From 10th to 17th century the most striking religious features is the increasing visibility of a wide range of gods and goddesses in sculpture as well as in religious books. At one level, this indicates the continued and extended worship of major deities Vishnu, Shiva and goodness like Durga & Laxmi. Historians who have tried to understand these developments suggest that there were at least two processes at work. One was a process of disseminating Brahmanical ideas. At the same time Brahmans were accepting and reworking on the beliefs and practices of various social categories. This practice has been called as integration of cults by Sociologists. Lord Jagannath in Puri, a local deity is worshipped as from of Vishnu and Buddha. Tantric Ideas were incorporated into Vajrayana Budhism. Through an instance we can say that a local deity, whose image was and continues to be made of wood by local tribal specialists, was recognized as a form of Vishnu. These local deities were often incorporated within the Puranic framework by providing them with an identity as a wife of the principal male deities - sometimes they were equated with Lakshmi, the wife of Vishnu.
Q. To what extend do you think the architecture of Mosques in the subcontinent reflects a combination of universal ideals and local traditions?
Ans. Islam as well as its architecture came to India in the medieval ages. The Arab-cum Islamic architecture got impacted by the local traditions and rites too. Hence, we see a fusion of the two. This can be further elaborated by the examples of architecture mainly the constructions of the Mosques of those days. Some features of the architecture of Mosques are universal. All mosques have orientation towards Mecca. This is manifested in the placement of Mehrab and Minar within a mosque. But at the same time we have influences that can be described only as local influences. A 13th century mosque in Kerala has a Shikhar like roof unlike a normal mosque where it is dome. The Shah Hamden mosque in Kashmir is made of Kashmiri woods and its façade is like that of a temple. The Atiya mosque in Bangladesh is made of bricks, though its roof is round. In the early years of muslim material from temples was used to construct the mosques e.g Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque in Delhi.
Q. What were the similarities and differences between the be-shari’a and ba-shari’a Sufi traditions?
Ans. Shari’a is the Islamic law that is applied in a truly Islamic country. The Shari’a law owes its origin to the Holy book Quran, Hadith and Sunnah of Prophet Mohammad (pbuh). With the expansion of Islamic world Qiyas(reasoning by analogy) and Ijma (Consensus of ulema’s) became part of Shari’a. The Islamic world witnessed a big social and religious movement called Sufi movement. Sufi movement was the people-centric and not God-centric. It believed that serving people was the real form of worship. Sufi movement has had many branches too.
Some groups of Sufi preachers took very radical path. They were mystics who renounced material world took to the life of asceticism. They rejected the supremacy of the Shari’a laws and sought reinterpretation of Quran on the basis of their personal experience. They ignored religious rituals and performed extreme asceticism, observed celibacy and mendicancy. Such Sufis were
called Be-shari’a e.g Qalandars, Madaris, Malangs and Haidars.
There were Sufi saints who criticized the extravagant lifestyle of monarchs and Caliphates but did not reject Shari’a laws. For them Shari’a laws were sacrosanct. They sought salvation through intense devotion to God by following commands of God and Sunnah of Prophet Mohammad (S.A.W). These Sufi saints have been called ba-shari’a e.g, Chisti and Suharwardi Sufi’s.
Q. Discuss the ways in which the Alvars, Nayanars and Vir shaivas expressed critiques of the caste system.
Ans. The early Bakhti Movement was led by Alvars and Nayanars in south India from the period of the 6th century. Alvars were worshippers of Vishnu while as Nayanars claimed to be worshippers of Lord Shiva. They travelled from place to place to sing devotional songs in Tamil in the name of Shiva or Vishnu. Apart from being a religious movement it was a social movement too. Many historians are of the view that Alvars and Nayanars gave a blow to the caste system and Brahmanism. The fact was that the movement was open to people from diverse background. The Bhaktas came from the castes of Brahmin to artisans to even those that were considered untouchables. Women’s who were considered equivalent to Shudras in caste Hierarchy and denied access to Vedic learning formed a substantial part of Alvars and Nayanars for example, Andal (Alvar) and Karaikal Ammaiyar (Nayanar). Vir shaivas was a movement of the 12th century that took place in Karnataka. The followers of Basava who worshipped Shiva were called Vir shaivas. They were also called Lingayats, which literary means wearer of Lingas. They challenged the caste system and the idea of any caste being pollutant or superior, theory of rebirth, pre-puberty marriages and encouraged widow remarriage.
This helped them grow support among marginalized sections of the society.
Q. Describe the major teachings of either Kabir or Guru Nanak and the way they have been transmitted.
Ans. Kabir was a great poet-cum saint of Indian society. He was born in Banaras. He was disciple of Ramananda and his mission was to preach a religion of love which would unite all castes and creeds. He has had appeal among Hindus and Muslims alike as it is believed that he was born as Hindu but was brought up by a muslim couple. He wrote poems (called as Dohaand Sakhi)that urge both communities to take to social reforms. The major teachings of Kabir were as follows:
i. Kabir described God as nirankar (formless). He used the terms drawn from Islamic tradition like Allah, Khuda, Hazrat and Peer but also used words of Vedic traditions like alakh (the unseen) and nirankar (the formless). Thus, he freely took to both traditions viz. Islamic and Vedantic.
ii. He repudiated idol worship and polytheism. He emphasized on the oneness of god though there can be many names of His.
iii. He criticized religious rituals of Hindus and Muslims alike. He also preached against caste discrimination.
iv. He combined the Sufi traditions of love of God with the Hindi tradition of remembrance of god. He also emphasised the dignity of labour.
Guru Nanak (1469-1538) and his teachings: Guru Nanak was born in 1469 at Talwindi Punjab. He spent his time in the company of Sufi Saints and Bhaktas of various socio-religious movements. The teachings of Guru Nanak are as follows:
a. He rejected the religious texts of both the Hindus and Muslims. He preached God is Nirankar. For Him the Rab–the absolute has no form or gender.
b. He criticized the religious practices like ceremonial baths, sacrifices, idol worship and emphasized simplicity.
c. He called upon his followers to connect to divine by remembering and repeating the divine name.
d. He proposed a middle path between extreme asceticism and needless gratification of the senses.
e. He believed in transmigration of soul and that evil doers will suffer from births and rebirths.
LongAnswerTypeQuestions:
Q. Discuss the major beliefs and practices that characterized Sufism?
Ans. The word Sufism is derived from Arabic Word Sufmeans wool in reference to those ascetics who wore woolen garments in place of cotton and silk. Sufi saints strive to achieve inner realization of divine unity through contemplation and Meditation. Sufi movement has had great impact in west and central Asia and later reached in the Indian subcontinent as well. These Sufi saints were mystics and their preaching’s included:
(a). Sufi saints did not subscribe to the theological and rigid interpretations of religious scriptures of Islam. They believed that interpretation have to be based on individual experiences. This way the theological interpretations became flexible. Further the control of the orthodox religious leaders got weakened. This was a people centric movement.
(b). they rejected the high sounding rituals. They also emphasized on simplicity in religious traditions and rites.
(c). Sufi saints prescribed devotion to Almighty as path to salvation. They even approved of singing and dancing as part of devotion. It is notable that classical Islam has forbidden singing, dancing and any music.
(d). the most important theme of Sufi philosophy was that serving people is the true religion. With the objective of serving the poor people they also held Langar. Today also one can go to Ajmer and can partake in the Langar organized on the tomb of Nizammudin Auliya, the great Sufi saint.
(e). Sufi saints also emphasized on the equality among people and oneness among all.
Q7. Examine how and why the rulers tried to establish connections with the traditions of the Nayanars and the Sufis?
Ans. (A). Nayanars: Nayanars were the worshippers of Lord Shiva. It gained a shape of powerful Bakhti movement in south India in the 6th century onwards. Apart from being popular with the people, the movement got support and patronage of the rulers of the time.
1. The Chola kings ruled over a great part of south India from the 9th to 13th centuries. They gave great patronage to the Bakhti Movement saints including Nayanars.
2. They did by making grants of land and constructing temples of Shiva and Vishnu for the saints of Bakhti movement.
3. The most beautiful temples of Shiva of South India, namely at Chidambaram, Thanjavur and Gangaikoda cholpuram were constructed under the patronage of the Chola rulers.
4. The most spectacular representation of Shiva in bronze sculptures like Nataraj was produced. All this was possible because the rulers patronized the Nayanars.
(A). Sufism (in India): Sufi tradition and the rulers of Delhi Sultanate and Mughal.
a. In the 12th century, Delhi and a considerable part of India fell to the rule of Muslim rulers. This rule is known as the period of Delhi Sultanate. The rulers of Delhi sultanate claimed themselves under Caliphate and tried to legitimize their rule. Under the Delhi Sultanate majority of the people was non Muslim. Shari’a laws were not enforced.
b. The rulers of Delhi sultanate wanted to take a practical path of governance without renouncing Islam. They visited Sufi dargah e.g, who visited Ajmer dargah 14 times to seek
blessings for new conquests, fulfillment of vows and birth of son.
c. Muslim rulers built their tombs and forts to be in the vicinity of Sufi saints. They set up charitable trusts auqaf as endowment for hospice and granted Tax free lands (Inamland), and donations in cash and kind.
d. The purpose of such donations and visits was to seek blessings and legitimize their rule and oppose the idea of ulemas to implement sharia with the support of Sufi saints who had large fan following.
The Rulers of Delhi sultanate and the Mughal Empire followed the tradition of Sufism.
Q. . Analyse, with illustrations, why Bakhti and Sufi thinkers adopted a variety of languages in which to express their opinions.
Ans. In medieval India, though Sanskrit and Persian was the language of the educated people or at the court, the vast numbers of people living in villages conversed in the local languages. It was because of this reason that the Bakhti and Sufi saints preached in the languages of the common people.
1. The traditional Bakhti saints composed the hymns in Sanskrit. Such hymns were sung on special occasions often within temples.
2. The Nayanars and the Alvars were wondering saints. They travelled far and wide, often walking on foot. These saints would sing and verses in praise of God all in the language of the local people. These travelling saints composed devotional songs in Tamil.
3. In North India the language was different. Here too the saints took to the language of the common people. Guru Nanak created Shadab all in Punjabi. Baba Farid and Swami Raidas (Ravidas) all composed in Punjabi and Hindustani. Kabir, who lived in Banaras, wrote in local language which was closer to Hindustani. He used words there part of local dialect.
4. The Sufi tradition of singing on tombs carried on in the language of the local people only.
5. The shrines were the places of Sama sung in Hindustani or Hindavi. Another Sufi Saint Baba Farid composed in Punjabi too that even became part of Guru Granth sahib. Some other saints wrote in Kannada, Tamil and other Languages.
VeryShortAnswerTypeQuestions:
Q. What does Bakhti movement mean? Discuss the beliefs and practices associated with early Bakhti saints?
Ans. A series of Hindu saints& reformers started religious reform movements which adopted the method of devotion (Bakhti) to achieve the salvation. Their method of expression of devotion ranged from the routine worship of deities within temple & singing & chanting of devotional composition.
The early Bakhti saints i.e Alvars and Nayanars rejected austerities and looked upon religion or relationship with god as a loving bond based on love between god and devotee. They communicated in local languages and sung songs of devotion from place to place. Singing later on became part of temple rituals. They disregarded caste order but did not oppose it. Woman formed an integral part of early Bakhti.
Q. Give the forms of Bakhti that emerged in North India? What were their differences?
Ans: Historians of religion have classified North Indian Bakhti into Saguna and Nirguna. Saguna Bakhti focused on worship of specific deities with attributes such as Shiva, Vishnu and their Avatars often conceptualized in anthropomorphic form. While as Nirguna Bakhti Saints like Kabir and Nanak believed in abstract form of god, without attributes.
Q. Give two differences between Alvars and Nayanars?
Ans: Alvars believed in god Vishnu and his Avtar’s. The Bhajans (Devotional songs) in praise of Vishnu were collected in Nalayira Divyaprabhandam popularly known as Tamil Veda. While as Worshippers of Shiva and his Avtars are called as Nayanars. The hymns devoted to Shiva are preserved in Tirumurari.
Q. Give the name of any four well known reformers of Bakhti movement?
Q. What is the importance of Murshid in Sufi ideology?
Ans. According to Sufism, an individual must have a religious guide (Murshid) through whom he can communicate with god. The pir is a ladder which enables a man to reach the goal of life Devotion to the Murshid is the worship of god.
Q. (a) Describe the causes of the rise of Bakhti movement?
Ans. 1. Influence of Vaishnavism
2. Evil practices of the Hindus
3. Fear of spirit of Islam
4. Influence of Sufi sects
5. Emergence of great reformers.
Q. (b) Describe the main Principal of Bakhti movement?
Ans. 1. Faith in god
2. Good deeds
3. Universal Brotherhood
4. Emotional worship
5. Condemned idol worship
6. Opposed to the rigidity of caste system
7. Guru Bakhti
Q. What were the main Principle of Sufism?
Ans. 1. Worship of God
2. Renunciation of worldly pleasure
3. Non violence & pacifism
4. Love of mankind
5. Importance of Murshid
6. Principle of Morality
7.Importance of singing & Dancing in worship of Allah
Q. Who were Andal and Karaikal Ammaiyar? What is their Contribution?
Ans: - Andal was a woman of Alvar Bakhti whose compositions have been widely sung. While as Karaikal Ammaiyar was a devotee of Shiva who adopted the path of extreme ascetism in order to attain her goal. The very existence of these women and their composition posed a challenge to patriarchal norms.
Key concepts in nutshell
• Zimmi/Dhimmi is a Persian word mean protected people. When muslim rule was established in India, The non Muslims communities were given protection by state and called as Zimmi.
• Jaziya is poll tax levied on non Muslims in muslim state for given them state protection.
• Tantric forms of worship – more prevalent among women.
• Karnataka saw a new movement under Basava a Brahmanas in court of Chalukyan ruler – his followers Vir shaivas (heroes of Shiva) or Lingayat (wearers of Linga) –important community to this day – who worship Shiva in form of a linga. Lingayats challenged idea of caste and questions the theory of rebirth. They encountered remarriage of widows.
• North India saw the emergence of Rajput states which patronized Brahmans – performed secular & ritual function. The Naths, Jogis, siddhas also.
• Sufism – Sufis were critical of dogmatic definitions & scholastic method of interpreting– Quran. They emphasized interpretation of Quran on basis of personal experiences.
• Chishtis – were a part of Sufis – hospices of khanqah were small room & hall for students to live & pray. Life in chisti khanqah was like the life of a monastery & catered to all travelers rich or poor. Sheikh Nizamuddin chisti had many followers.
• Temples at Chidambaram, Thanjavur and Gangaikoda Cholapuram are examples of Bakhti Impact on architecture.
• Ravidas was a contemporary of Kabir and propagator of devotion to formless god. He believed in rebirth and regarded Bakhti as surest method of salvation.
• Ramananda brought Bakhti movement from south to north hence called as bridge between North and South Bakhti. He worshipped Ram. Kabir and Nanak were his two popular followers.
• Khojas were a branch of Ismalia Shia’s. There major contribution was that they developed a new means of communication, disseminating ideas derived from Quran through Indigenous genres including Ginan derived from Sanskrit word Jnana meaning knowledge. Khoja Script was derived from local Landa script.
• Mira Bai a Rajput Princess from Marwar is best known woman poet of Saguna Bakhti. She defied traditional woman role and sung Bhajans in praise of Lord Krishna-the Avtar of Vishnu.
• Sociologist Robert Redfield coined Great and Little traditions. Great Traditions was the tradition followed by socially dominated class like kings and priests while as Little tradition was followed by peasantry and other classes.
• Lord Jagannath an Avtar of Vishnu is the principal deity of Puri in Odisha.
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