Theme: 9 Through the Eyes of Travelers Class 12th History

 

Theme: 9

Through the Eyes of Travelers

ShortAnswerTypeQuestions:

Q. Write a note on Kitab-ul-Hind.

Ans. The book ‘Kitab-ul-Hind’ is written by Abu Raihan Mohammad Ibn Al-Biruni (973–1050) in simple and lucid Arabic. Al-Beruni was a renowned philosopher, a mathematician and a historian. He came in contact with Mahmud when he had invaded Khiva and he was presented before him as prisoner. In his book Kitab Ul Hind also known as Tahqiq-i-Hind he portrays the social, political, religious and economic condition of India. It is a voluminous text divided into 80 chapters on various subjects and topics such as religions, philosophy, festivals customs, social life, weights and measures, iconography laws and metrology. He adopted a distinctive structure in each area, beginning with a question followed up with a comparison with other cultures. Some historians

conclude this near geometric structure which was remarkable for its precision. Al-Biruni probably wrote his monumental work to acquaint his Ghaznavid ruler and peoples living along the frontiers of subcontinent. He was familiar with Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit texts which had been translated into Arabic. He defines the Hindu caste system by looking for parallels in other societies. He depended exclusively on the works of Brahmans for an understanding of Indian society. Thus, his studies can trend to reflect Brahmanical bias e.g, his description of caste system.

Q. Compare and contrast the perspective from which Ibn Batuta and Bernier wrote their accounts of their travels in India.

Ans. Ibn Batuta: Abū Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Abdullah al-Lawātī al-Ṭanjī Ibn Baṭṭūṭah, (1304- 1368 or 1377) the medieval Muslim traveler and the author of one of the most famous travel books, the Riḥlah(Travels). His great work describes his extensive travels covering some 75,000 miles (120,000km)    in    trips    to     almost   all  of  the  Muslim  countries  and   as     far as China and Sumatra (Indonesia). He served as judge in the Court of Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq.

Ibn Batuta’s objective was simple. He was keen observer of details and receptive to new cultures. He highlighted those things in his texts that were unfamiliar or impressive and excited him because of their novelty as paan and coconut. His aim was to generate interests among his readers for distant yet accessible areas. Ibn Juzayy says his narrative “gave entertainment to the mind and delight to the ears and eyes”. He wrote in glowing terms about cities, crowded streets, colorful markets and exciting opportunities. He noted the subcontinent was well integrated with networks of trade and commerce and Indian goods were in great demand.

Francois Bernier (1620-1688): Bernier’s writing was marked by detailed observations, critical insights and reflections. His account was Eurocentric and aimed to influence policy makers in favor of private property. He failed to conceive the social and economic complexities of Indian system. He regarded lack of private property as cause of improvement of peasants’ ruination of agriculture; cities, towns and overall stagnation. He described Mughal cities as mere ‘Camp towns’. He was too preoccupied to project Mughal state as tyrannical, felt artisans had no incentive, manufactures were in decline, and there was no middle class.

Q. Discuss the picture of urban centers that emerges from Bernier’s account.

Ans. During the 17th century nearly 15% of population was living in town. This was average proportion of urban population of Western Europe. Bernier described Mughal cities as camp towns. By Camp Towns he meant those towns which depended upon the imperial court and declined with the imperial court. There were all kinds of towns-manufacturing, trading port, sacred and pilgrimage towns. Their existence is indicative of prosperity of merchant communities and professional classes. The trading groups of merchant’s community were known as Mahajans in the western India. Their chief’s were known as Seth. Chief of the merchant community was called Nagarsheth. There were many urban groups included – professional classes such as physicians (Hakim), Teachers (mullahs and pundits), lawyers (wakil), painters, artists, musicians etc. most of whom made their living by serving other patrons, while others served as ordinary people in bazaars. He conceded that great quantities of the world’s costly metals flowed into India, as manufacture was exported in exchange of gold and silver.

Q. Analyse the evidence of slavery provided by Ibn Batuta?

Ans. Ibn Batuta was the most important foreign traveler who came to India, his details throws light on the practice of slavery prevalent in India. He reached Sind where he bought horses, camels and slaves as gift for Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq. In the same way when he reached Multan he offered to Governor with a horse, raisins, almond and a slave. He described that Muhammad bin Tughlaq told him – be honored Nasiruddin, a preacher with a hundred thousand tankas and two hundred slaves.

Slave labour was used for domestic services especially indispensible for carrying woman and man on palanquins or dola. The cost of slaves, mainly women slaves which were required for domestic labour was very low. His account provided differentiation among slaves. Some female slaves were in the service of sultan who were good in music as well as dance, Ibn Batuta himself enjoyed the same. Most female slaves were captured in vaids and expeditions. Female slaves were engaged by the Sultan as spy on his nobles. Scavengers communicated all the information about the nobles.

Q. What were the elements of the practice of Sati that drew the attention of Bernier?

Ans. Sati or Suttee was a largely historical practice found chiefly among Hindus in the northern and pre-modern regions of South Asia, in which a widow sacrifices herself by sitting atop her deceased husband's funeral pyre. The practice of sati according to the Bernier showed the difference in the treatment of women in Western and Eastern societies. He noticed how a child widow were forcefully burnt screaming on the funeral pyre while many of the older women were resigned their fate. Under these cruel practices a widow was forcibly made to sit on the pyre of her husband. Hands and feet used to tie and burnt alive. People had no sympathy for her. The widow was an unwilling victim of the sati-practice. She was forced to be a Sati.

LongAnswerTypeQuestions:

Q6. Discuss Al-Biruni’s understanding of caste system?

Ans. Al-Beruni described Indian Caste System by looking parallels in ancient Persia where four social categories were recognized i.e, 1. Knights & princes 2. Monks, Fire-priests and lawyers

3. Physicians, astronomers and other scientists 4. Peasants and artisans.

He attempted to suggest that social divisions were not unique to India. His description of the caste system in India was deeply influenced by his study of Sanskrit texts. The highest caste was the Brahmins as they were created from the head of the Brahman, the Kshatriyas from the shoulders and hands of the Brahman, the Vaishyas the Shudras were created from the thighs and feet of the Brahman respectively.

During early times Persian society was divided into four categories he realized that social division was not unique to India. Al-Biruni accepted the caste system but he was against the notion of pollution by caste. He believed that according to the laws of nature anything which becomes impure ultimately becomes pure again, e.g. the sun clears the air. The caste system was according to him contrary to the laws of nature. He failed to realize that the caste system was not as rigid as portrayed in the Sanskrit texts.

Q. Do you think Ibn Batuta’s account is useful in arriving at an understanding of life in contemporary urban centers? Give reasons for your answer.

Ans. Batuta’s observation about the cities of India:

(i) According to him, Indian cities had many exciting opportunities and were useful for those who had the necessary drive, skills and resources. Indian cities were prosperous and densely populated.

(ii) These cities had colorful market trading in different kinds of goods. Delhi was the largest city of India and had a lot of population. Daulatabad was another important city of India which challenged Delhi in size.

(iii) The cities were not only the centre of economic transactions but also the centre of social and cultural activities. Most of the bazaars in the cities had temples and mosques.

(iv) Cities also had fixed places for public performances by dancer, musician and singer. He found that many towns derived their wealth and prosperity through the appropriation of surplus from villages.

(v) Indian goods were in great demand in west Asia and south-east Asia. So the artisans and merchants earned huge profit.

Q. Discuss the extent to which Bernier’s accounts enables historians to reconstruct contemporary rural society.

Ans. Bernier’s assessment about Indian rural society was not correct. It was far away from the truth, but it is not acceptable. There is some truth in his description which is evident from the following facts:

(i) According to his account, Mughal Empire was the owner of the land and distributed among its nobles. It had a disastrous impact on society.

(ii) According to him the system of ‘crown ownership of land’ was good. The land holders could not pass on their lands to their children. They did not make any long term investment on the land.

(iii) As there was no private property in land, there was not any improvement in the landlord class. This system ruins agriculture and led to opinion of peasants.

Bernier’s view regarding Indian society had the following features:

a. The rich people were in minority.

b. It had the poorest of the poor and the richest of the rich, no middle class existed there

c. All the cities and towns were ruined and had contaminated sir.

AdditionalQuestions:

Q. What are the comparisons that Ibn Batuta makes to give his readers on idea about what coconuts looked like?

Ans The following is how Ibn Batuta described the coconut:

(i) These trees are among the most peculiar trees in kind and most astonishing in habit. They look exactly like date palms, without any difference between them except that the one produces nuts as its fruits and the other produces dates.

(ii) The nut of a coconut tree resembles a man's head, for in it are what look like two eyes and a mouth, and the inside of it when it is green looks like the brain and attached to it is a fiber which looks like hair. They make from this cards with which they sew up ships instead of (using) iron nails, and they (also) make from it cables for vessels.

Q. What according to Bernier, were the problems faced by peasants in the subcontinent? Do you think his description would have served to strengthen his case?

Ans: - Following problems were faced by peasants in the subcontinent:

1. Owing to crown ownership of land, landholders could not pass on their land to their children. So they were averse to any long, term investment in the sustenance and expansion of production.

2. It had led to the continuous ruination of agriculture excessive oppression of the peasantry and a continuous decline in the living standards of all sections of society.

3. Of the vast tracts of country, many parts are little more than sand, or barren mountains.

4. Even a considerable portion of the good land remains untilled for want of laborers.

5. The poor people, when they become incapable of discharging the demands of their rapacious lords, are not only often deprived of the means of subsistence, but are also made to lose their children, who are carried away as slaves. Thus, it happens that the peasantry, driven to despair by excesses & tyranny, abandoned the country.

Yes, I think his description would have served to strengthen his case

Q. Do you think Al-Biruni depended only on Sanskrit texts for his information and understanding of Indian Society?

Ans. Al-Biruni depended almost exclusively on the work of Brahmanas, often citing passages from the Vedas the Purana, the Baghvad Gita the works of Patanjali the Manusmriti etc., to provide an understanding of Indian society.

VeryShortAnswerTypeQuestions:

Q. Name any two travelers who came to India during the medieval period (11th – 17th)? Ans. Al Biruni (11th Century) from Uzbekistan

1. Ibn-Batuta (14th Century) from Morocco in North-western Africa.

2. Francois Bernier (17th Century) from France

Q. What was the Al-Biruni’s objective to come India?

Ans. (1) To help those who want to discuss religious questions with them.

(2) As a repertory of information to those who want to associate with them.

Q. Name the Plants found in India which amazed Ibn-Batuta.

Ans. Coconut – He wrote that the nuts of coconut resemble a man’s head.

Paan – He wrote about Paan that the betel has no fruit and is grown only for the sake of his leaves...

Q. What was the more complex social reality which Bernier’s notice in the Mughal Empire?

Ans. (i) He felt that artisans had not incentive to improve the quality of their manufacturers because profits were appropriated by the state. Thus production was on the verge of decline.

(ii) At the same time, he conceded that vast quantities of the world’s precious metals (gold & silver) flowed into India in exporting manufactures.

Q. What were the barriers discussed by Al-Biruni that obstructed him in understanding India? 

Ans. Following were the barriers he faced in understanding India –

1. Problems of Language – According to him, Sanskrit was so different from Arabic and Persian that ideas and concept could not be easily translated from one language.

2. Difference of religion beliefs and practices – He was Muslim and his religious beliefs and practices were quite different from India.

3. Self-absorption and insularity of the local population - According to him the third barrier was the isolation policy of the Indians.

Q. What were the evils-effects of the crown ownership of land according to Bernier?

Ans. (1) Absence of ownership of land, landholders could not pass on their land to their children.

Thus, they didn’t take any interest in increasing production.

(1) It prevented the emergence of the “improving” landlords.

(2) It led to the ruination of agriculture.

(3) It brought a continuous decline in the living standard of all sections of society.

(4) It led to the excessive oppression of the peasantry.

Q. Explain the term Hindu?

Ans: The term Hindu is derived from river Indus called in Sanskrit as Sindhu (Hindu in Persian). The Arabs continued to call it Al-Hind and its people as Hindi. Later Turks referred to the people of east of Indus as Hindu, their land as Hindustan and their Language as Hindi. It was much later the term developed it religious connotation.

Q. Why do you think some travelers carried arms while travelling?

Ans: The travel through India was arduous and hazardous. There was threat of robbers was not uncommon. Ibn-Batuta while traveling from Multan to Delhi was attacked by robbers and many fellow travelers lost their lives, and those who survived include Ibn-Batuta as well. Thus, travelers in India carried arms along with as safety weapon.

Q. Explain the unique system of communication as mentioned by Ibn-Batuta?

Ans: Ibn-Batuta was impressed by the efficiency of postal system. It allowed merchants to send information and transit money to far distance. The goods were dispatched at a short distance. The two types of postal communication were Uluq (run by Royal Horse) and Dawa (foot post). The courier runs from his own station at fast speed, ringing bells to hand over information and goods to men at next post.

Keyconceptsinnutshell

➢ The term “the bird leaves the nest” applies to Ibn-Batuta who left home at the age of 22 in 1324 and returned in 1354 after 30 years of travel.

➢ “Oriental Despotism” term was used by French philosopher Montesquieu under the influence of Bernier’s writing on India. To him the rulers in Asia enjoy absolute authority over the subjects who were kept in subjugation and poverty.

➢ Al-Beruni translated Patanjali’s work on Sanskrit Grammar into Arabic and Euclid’s book into Sanskrit.

➢ Robert Nobili and Duarte Barbosa were two Portuguese writers who came to india.

➢ The notion of Pollution through touch made India Caste System unique to Al-Beruni.

➢ Tarabad was the famous musician town of Daulatabad. It was the market for both male and female singers, and musical instruments.

➢ Ibn-Batuta is known as globe trotter because he traveled extensively. He considered travel based experience more important source of knowledge than books.

➢ Abdur Razaq Samarqandi who visited Vijayanagra Empire in south India, Mahmud Wali Balkhi of Balkh, and Shiekh Ali Hazin followed footsteps of Ibn-Batuta.

➢ Around 15% of population in 17th century lived in towns in India.

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