Unit-8
CONFRONTATION OF CULTURES
FOCUS ON AMERICA FROM 15TH TO 18TH CENTURY
Q. Compare the civilization of Aztecs with that of the Mesopotamians?
Ans: Mesopotamian civilization flourished in modern Iraq between river Tigris and Euphrates from 5000 BC, while Aztec Civilization flourished in Central America, Modern Mexico from 1200–1400 CE. Both these civilizations supported huge empires, hierarchical society, polytheistic religion, surplus agriculture, and built impressive palaces and temples.
Aztec Civilization:
1. The Aztecs were a warrior tribe of Mexico. The significant feature of Aztec civilization was Chinampas. The Aztecs spoke Nahuati language.
2. The empire rested on rural base, cultivated crops like corn, beans, pumpkins, squash and manioc roots.
3. Potter’s wheel was unknown but their pottery showed a wide range of variety. Cotton weaving, use of semi-precious stones and gold were highly developed crafts
4. Society was hierarchical and constituted of warriors, priests, nobles, merchants, craftsman, peasants and slaves. Slavery was known but slaves could buy their freedom.
5. The Aztecs laid great importance on education and made sure that all children go to school. Aztecs worshipped number of gods like Sun god, war god, Corn Goddess (mother of all gods).
6. Geographical explorations of 15th century were followed by conquest of Aztecs at the hands of H. Cortes (Spanish) in 1519-21. Use of military repression, forced labor and ravages of diseases like smallpox caused the dismemberment of Aztec civilization.
Mesopotamia Civilization:
1. The Mesopotamia Civilization flourished between River Tigris and Euphrates and was known for prosperity, city life and rich literature.
2. Agriculture was supported by irrigation canals, crops like wheat, barley, date palms and peas were cultivated.
3. The Mesopotamia Urban culture was supported by surplus agriculture, trade development, services and manufactures and system of writing.
4. Religion included worship of gods like Moon god, Ur, goddess of love and war worshiped in impressive temples known as Ziggurats.
5. Mesopotamians were first to use Potter’s wheel, Glass ware, written code of laws.
6. The Mesopotamia society was divided into three classes- Upper, Middle and Lower Classes.
Q. What were the new developments helping European Navigation in Fifteenth century?
Ans: Besides 3 G’s – gold, glory and god, the new developments helping European navigation in fifteenth century can be summarized as:
1. The European economy went through a phase of decline from mid-14th to mid-15th centuries. There was shortage of gold and silver used for making coins.
2. Turkish conquest of Constantinople in 1453, and monopolization of trade by city- states of Italy forced European countries like Portugal and Spain to break Arab- Venetian monopoly and by-pass Turkish hostility.
3. Prospectus of huge profits led govts and private financiers to encourage individuals to become knights of ocean. E.g. Prince Henry of Portugal.
4. Spirit of adventure and curiosity generated by Renaissance.
5. The religious zeal to bring more people within the fold of Christianity through discovery of new lands.
6. Advancement in the field of science of navigation through invention of Compass (1380), Astrolabe, art of mapping, larger Ships and travel Literature encouraged fifteenth century navigation.
Q. Give reasons for Spain and Portugal being first in the fifteenth century to venture across Atlantic?
Ans: The combination of three motives – Economic, Political and Religious or 3 G’s – Gold, Glory and God were main reasons for Spain and Portugal being the first to venture across Atlantic.
1. Spain was main Sea power of Europe till 15th century. Portugal has also developed fishing and sailing techniques after gaining independence from Spain in 1139.
2. The old trading routes between East and West came under Turkish rule after the conquest of Constantinople in 1453. Spain and Portugal ventured out in Atlantic Ocean to avoid Turkish hostility and end Venetian-Arab trade monopoly and find a new trade route to East. Their appetite was wetted by huge profits and prosperity of Italian trading Cities.
3. The Spanish and Portuguese sailors were well equipped with Compass, Astrolabe, Map making and ship building to venture out for navigation and exploration of New Lands.
4. Spirit of adventure and curiosity generated by Renaissance.
5. The religious zeal to bring more people within the fold of Christianity through discovery of new lands.
6. Support from Spain and Portugal govts and private financiers through contracts (Capitulaciones) to become knights of Oceans.
Q. Which new food items were transmitted from South America to rest of world?
Ans: The navigation in Atlantic Ocean and Exploration of South America made Europeans familiar with new American crops like potatoes, tobacco, chilies, sugar, rubber, cocoa, and squash. These crops were later taken by Europeans to other countries like India.
Q. Write an account of journey of an African boy of seventeen captured and taken to Brazil?
Ans: Brazil was discovered by Alvarez Cabral in 1500 AD. Thus Brazil became Portuguese colony. Timber was its main resource.
1. With the support of natives, Portuguese exploited its timber resources and after clearing forests undertook sugarcane plantation.
2. The Portuguese greed, forced labor and inhuman treatment of natives brought them in conflict, many of whom took refuge in mountains to escape slavery.
3. The immense profit from plantations and mills forced them to look for an alternative source of cheap labour. Africa was the cheap source of slave Labour.
4. Thus, a 17 year old boy was captured by local trader and sold him to Portuguese. The boy was handcuffed, chained and forcibly shipped to Brazil to work as slave.
5. Reached Brazil after many weeks of starvation and inhuman treatment in unhygienic conditions.
6. Subjected to harsh treatment in sugar plantations, often beaten like an animal, as he was nit regarded as human but commodity.
7. If he tries to escape, he was caught, chained, beaten and subjected to rigorous punishment to ensure there is no repetition of attempt to escape.
8. No emotional or monetary remuneration however, sometimes rescued by Jesuit priests.
Q. How did the discovery of South America lead to the development of European Colonialism?
Ans: The desire for alternative route to East for prosperous spice trade lead to accidental discovery of Americas and for the first time entire world was brought into regular physical contact with one another. The enormous wealth, spirit of adventure and religious zeal wetted the appetite of other European nations to follow suit. The private contracts for navigation were followed by European settlements, flag and missionaries eventually leading to colonization of natives. Spain and Portugal failed to invest huge wealth to further trade and built merchant navy but other nations bordering Atlantic Ocean took advantage of discoveries and established Joint Stock Companies to colonize new lands for trade. The prime motive Gold, Glory and God later necessitated political control on new areas. The natives were subjugated through superior military power- gun powder and horses. The need for cheap labor to work in plantations led to search for alternative source of labor and thus colonization of Africa.
Thus the vast colonial empires were found by Portugal, Spain, England, Holland and France. The accumulation of wealth gave an impetus for Industrial Revolution in Europe and fresh phase of Colonisations. The colonies served as source of raw material and market for manufactured goods. Thus, the discovery of South America was an important factor in the development of European colonialism.
Q. Discuss the differences between the Arawak’s and the Spanish. Which of these differences would you consider significant and why?
Ans: Spanish: It was the greed for gold which led them to enslave the natives and treat them brutally when the locals refused to collaborate in the search for gold or resisted foreign domination. The Spanish were brutal, deceitful, greedy, acquisitive and aggressive.
Arawak’s: The Arawakian Lucayos lived on cluster of Caribbean island- Bahamas and Greater Antilles. They were skilled in hunting, fishing and boat building. The Central cultural values were that food was produced collectively and every one in community was feed from it. They were generous, trusting, peace loving, and Ingenious. They had not attached any value to gold. Significant differences: the Spanish greed for gold made them to treat natives brutally; resulting into enslavement of Arawak’s, brutal wars on resistance and within 25 years little remained of the Arawak’s and their way of life.
Q: To what extent you think geography influenced the developments of the Inca Empire?
Ans: The Inca Empire with its capital Cuzco was the largest indigenous civilization of South America. It flourished in Andean region from 12th to 15th century AD. It stretched 3000 miles from Ecuador to Chile. The geography of the region was marked by towering rugged mountains and deep valleys. Geography played a vital role in the development of the Inca Empire. E.g,
1. The Empire Extended lengthwise along the coast. Difficult terrain contributed to the empire being dotted by Fort cities like Mach Pichhu of South Central America.
2. The Empire was highly centralized in the hands of king who divided it into four parts each of which ruled by a noble and council of elders.
3. The Inca’s were magnificent builders of palaces, temples, fortresses and official storehouses in huge stones.
4. The basis of Inca Empire was agriculture. To cope with infertile soil conditions, hill sides were terraced for cultivation. Developed drainage and irrigation system was the result of great engineering skills.
Q. Analyse the Impact/effect of European contact on the natives of South America?
Ans: European exploration of South America ultimately led to the conquest and colonisation of the continent. The effect of European colonisation on natives is as under:
1. Subjugation of natives and destruction of their life by a small no of European settlers.
2. Enslavement of locals who were forced to work for cutting forests, growing sugar and rubber plantations and in mills. The refusal to work means enslavement, isolation in reservations, torture, brutal massacre etc
3. The immediate consequence was decimation of local population, exposure to unheard diseases like small pox, tuberculosis which played havoc and epidemics among natives became common.
4. Exploitation of vast resources of natives by European settlers.
Q. Describe the main geographical discoveries of early modern age?
Ans: The Portuguese and Spanish were the pioneers of geographical discoveries of 14th and 15th centuries. The major Discoveries were:
Portuguese:
1. Prince Henry the Navigator (1396-1460) established navigation school, prepared maps and encouraged expedition to discover unknown lands.
2. Bartholmew Diaz: in 1486 he sailed through the west coast of Africa up to the tip of African continent which he named as “Cape of Good Hope”.
3. Vasco da Gama: He sailed further through Cape of Good Hope and reached Calicut India in 1498. The profit from Indian trade encouraged further discoveries of Sri Lanka, Sumatra and Java.
Spanish:
1. Christopher Columbus: The Italian sailor under Spanish patronage sailed through west coast of Africa to discover an alternative sea route to India. The small crew of 40 sailors in three ships reached Island of Guanahani (San Salvador) in Bahamas. Columbus made three more trips to this new world.
2. Amerigo Vespucci: An Italian geographer further explored the areas and called them a “New World”.
3. V.N. Balboa: He crossed Panama Island and was the first person to sight Pacific Ocean which he called South Sea.
4. Ferdinand Magellan: Was the first person to make voyage round the world in 1519 under the patronage of Spanish king Charles. He crossed Atlantic sea to reach southern tip of South America sailed through straits known as Straits of Magellan. He landed in the islands of Philippines where he was killed by natives.
5. Other Discoveries are: Florida by P. d Leon, Mexico by Cortez in 1519 and Peru by Pizarro.
Q. Write short note on slave trade in South America?
Ans: Use of African slaves was an integral part of exploitative policies of European colonialists in south America that is why between 1550’s to 1880’s over 3600000 African slaves were transported to Brazil. Slavery existed in Africa prior to the entry of Europeans and slaves formed bulk of the labour force from 15th century onwards. European traders were helped by Africans to capture young men and women to be sold as slaves in return for crops from South America. Slavery was not new idea but South America experience was new in that it accompanied the emerging Capitalist system of production. Working conditions were horrific, but Spanish regarded exploitation essential to their economic growth. However, Olaudah Equiano a freed slave argued slaves in Africa were treated as part of the family. In 1880’s Slavery was abolished in Brazil.
Points to remember:
1. The two types of cultures in America’s were Small subsistence economies like Arawak’s of Caribbean region & Tupinambas of Brazil, and Large Empires like Aztec’s & Maya of Mexico and Inca of Piru.
2. The Machu Pichhu city of Inca Empire was discovered in 1911.
3. Tupinambas were people who lived in East Coast of South America.
4. Brazil is derived from Brazilwood (Plant) and Mexico from God Mexiti.
5. Quipu was a stick on which knotted strings of various colors were tied in a series by the Inca’s of Piru. Quipu was an accounting system.
6. Reconquista were the military conquest by Christians of Iberian Peninsula against Arabs in 1492.
7. Columbus was inspired by “Imango Mundi” book of C. P. d’Ailly written 1410. His fleet was three ships – Santa Maria the Large ships and Pinta and Nina (Smaller Ships). He Thought the Cubanascan Island of Caribbean as Japan.
8. Night of Tears: the massacre of 600 Spanish conquistadors and the Tiaxcaian allies by Aztecs is known as Night of tears.
9. Chinampas also known as floating gardens were artificial Islands made by Aztecs in Lake Mexico by weaving reed and covering with mud and plants.
10. Age of Discovery is the period in world History when new trade routes were explored and new lands discovered. The age of discovery extended from last quarter of 15th century to 16th century.
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