Unit 7
Changing Cultural Traditions
(Focus:Europe 14th to 17th Century)
Short Answer type Questions
Q. Which elements of Greek and Roman Culture were revived during fourteenth and fifteenth centuries?
Ans: The fourteenth and fifteenth century saw the revival (Renaissance) of many elements of Greek and Roman culture like:
1. Written works/ literature: The universities of Padua and Bologna and scholars like Francisco Petrarch (Father of Humanism) stressed on reading Greco-Roman works with focus on cultural traditions. Thus the focus was on grammar, poetry, history, rhetoric and moral philosophy.
2. Humanism: Humanism focused on skills and interests of individual developed by debates and discussions owed to Greek and Roman thought. The focus was on individual instead of god.
3. The revival of moral philosophy and thought of scholars like Socrates, Pluto, Aristotle, St. Augustine, Livy etc.
4. Similarly works in mathematics, Science, Astronomy, Medicine and chemistry were translated and further advancement was done in these fields.
5. Revival of Art: The surviving pieces of Greco-Roman art like Painting, Sculpture and architecture inspired Renaissance artist to produce remarkable pieces of art and architecture.
Q. Compare details of Italian architecture of the period with the Islamic Architecture?
Ans: (A) Italian Architecture:
1. Italian architecture was the conscious revival of certain elements of Greco-Roman architecture like arches, dome and columns.
2. The specimens of Italian Architecture are found in Church’s like St. Peters church (Rome),
St Marks Church (Venice), St Paul’s church (London) and in Palaces of Spain and Heildburg fort of Germany.
3. Italian Architecture was marked by decoration using paintings, sculpture and various other art forms e.g., Michelangelo painted the ceiling of Sistine Chapel in Vatican but gave it human interpretation.
4. The paintings in Italian Architecture were marked by an emphasis on man’s physical existence and not God. The artists depicted the beauty of physical world and humans as perfect beings. e.g., The Pieta.
(A) Islamic Architecture:
a) The Islamic Architecture was purely religious Architecture.
b) The specimens of Islamic architecture are Mosques, Tombs and Shrines as seen in Central Asia and Spain. There were also Caravan sarais, Hospitals and Palaces.
c) The basic design consists of Arch, dome, Minarets and Open Courtyard.
d) The Mosques were designed according to spiritual needs of Muslims. There was an open courtyard (Sahn) leading to large hall to accommodate a long lines of worshippers. Inside the hall there was a Niche (Mehrab) towards west (the direction of Mecca) and pulpit (Minber) from where sermons were given.
e) As portraying living beings is prohibited in Islam, the Muslims decorated their buildings with Calligraphy (In Kufi Script) and arabesque.
Q. Why were the Italian towns the first to experience the idea of Humanism?
Ans: Italian towns were the first to experience humanism because of certain specific reasons like.
1. Rise of Cities and trade: after the fall of Roman Empire Italy saw the revival of city like Venice, Florence, Milan etc and expansion of trade with Byzantine and Islamic countries. These Italian towns represented the political facet of Renaissance that is replacements of big empires with independent towns.
2. Middle class and Citizenship: in Italian cities clergy and feudal lords were not dominant. Rich merchants and bankers actively participated in governance. This led to citizenship and sense of pride. This was the precursor of the growth of middle class which is social facet of Renaissance.
3. Patronage to Art and literature: The people and rulers of Italian city states were great patrons of scholars and artists. The revival of Greek and roman traditions led to the growth of humanism in which focus was on human beings as distinct from divine beings.
4. Universities: the role of universities like Padua and Bologna were centers of humanist thought. Here the focus was on studies other than religion.
5. Migration of Greek scholars to Italy: The Turkish conquest of 1453, lead the migration of Greek scholars and artists along with their literature and art pieces to Italy which created a new spirit and interest for classical traditions.
Q. Compare the Venetian idea of good government with those in contemporary France?
Ans; Venice: Venice was located on the sea coast of the Adriatic Sea, found in 5th century. The reason of Venice’s rise to prominence and prosperity was its foundation on the trade
route between Western Europe and Asia. Its wealth soon made it the centre of culture and leading Centre of Italian Renaissance.
Venice was a city state in Italy were republican govt. was established in 15th century. Here Clergy and feudal lords were not powerful. The rich merchants and bankers participated in city’s governance. According to contemporary writer Cardinal Gasparo Contarini (1483- 1542) the entire authority of Venice was in the hands of a council whose members were gentleman above the age of 25 years. Thus, the administration was in the hands of common people – noble by birth or ennobled by virtue. This greatly helped in the development of notion of citizenship and later nationalism.
France: The political, administrative system in the contemporary France was in the hands of absolute monarchs. The power of nobles in France was limited and standing army was maintained. The king was at the centre of elaborate patron-Client relationship. This patronage ensured cooperation between various sections of society in maintaining power of king.
The king claimed divine right of Kingship with army as an instrument of despotism. The focus was on wars and conquests. There was little participation of people. In the reign of Lois-XIII of France in 1614 a meeting of the Estates General (The French Consultative Association) comprising three orders i.e Clergy, Nobility and Common masses was convened. After this it was not summoned for about two centuries. This clearly shows there was no involvement and representation of people in Governance.
Q. What were the main features of Humanist Thought?
Ans; Humanism is derived from Latin word “Humanitas” used by Roman Essayist and Lawyer Cicero to mean culture. Humanist thought was the chief characteristic of Renaissance. It was the basis and defining feature of Renaissance. Petrarch is considered as the father of Humanist Thought.
Humanist thought consciously de-emphasized religion, focusing on skills and interests developed by individuals though debates and discussions. In fact, the focus was on all that was human as distinct from divine. Humanism was a system of thought which extolled man and stressed his worth and dignity. Humanism stood for freedom and rights of the individual.
Humanists regarded themselves as restoring true civilization after the fall of Roman Empire. The contemporary art and architecture also reflected humanist thought. Realism was the key note of Art of the period. Animals, humans and nature was carefully studied and depicted in art. The art focused on physical aspects of man’s existence e.g., The Last Supper and Mona Lisa of Leonardo da Vinci.
Humanism stressed on the fact that individuals were capable of shaping their own destiny through means other than pursuit of power and money. Humanist writings lead to debates and discussions in the subjects other than religion such as poetry, theatre, grammar, history etc.
Q. Write an account of how the world appeared different to 17th century Europeans?
Ans; The Renaissance spirit of enquiry and reasoning led to new scientific inventions and geographical discoveries, whereby the world appeared different. Contrary to accepted beliefs
of Christianity, scientists began tom use new methods of questioning, observation and experimentation whereby many old views were challenged and knowledge as distinct from belief was emphasized. E.g., The medieval theory that earth is a sinful place and immobile because of the burden of sins and earth stood at the centre of universe around which other planets move was proved wrong.
Scientists like Copernicus proved it is not the earth which is centre of universe. The planets including earth rotate around the sun in circular orbit. Kepler and Galileo proved Copernicus theory correct with minor corrections. Isaac Newton through Gravitational theory proved that heavenly bodies including earth, moon and stars move according to law of gravitation.
Andrea Vesalius based on actual dissection, provided the first complete description of human body. Harvey gave complete understanding of blood circulation in our body. The use of Arabic numerals simplified accounting as Roman numerals and Abacus was cumbersome. The geographical discoveries of Columbus, Vasco da Gama, Pizarro, Cabral, and Magellan changed the conception of universe. Printing press invention, Mariners compass, astrolabe etc. completely changed the view point of world from that of medieval ages.
Q. Renaissance/Humanism impacted Christianity. Discuss with special emphasis on Protest Reformation?
Ans: Humanism had deep impact on Christianity. In Italy the Renaissance with its focus on classics led to individualism and questioning of religious dogmas by professional scholars. Many members of church from north Europe joined humanism and gave call on practice of Christianity as prescribed in sacred texts discarding rituals. There was a new radical view of human beings as free and rational agents.
Christian Humanists like Thomas Moore in England and Erasmus in Holland objected to Immoral and luxurious lives of people associated with church. A lot of objection was raised against sale of Letters of Indulgence, Church’s overt focus on Latin (The language of few elites), Popes authority to raise taxes and fees as would make their lives in luxury, selling of offices to immoral, corrupt and inefficient persons and finally from divergence from ancient sacred texts.
Martin Luther King made strongest attack on papacy and Catholic Church in his 95 thesis. He said a person did not need priests to establish contact with god. He asked his followers to have complete faith in God, as faith alone could guide them to the right life and entry to heaven. This Movement called as Protestant Reformation Movement led to establishment of new Church’s in Germany, England, and Switzerland breaking their connection with Pope and Catholic Church. U. Zwingli and J. Calvin popularized his ideas in Switzerland.
Q. What were the issues on which Protestants criticized Catholics?
Ans: The Protestants criticized Catholics on living immoral and luxurious life, sale of letters of indulgence, selling office related to church to immoral, corrupt and inefficient person, Popes authority to raise Taxes and Fees, divergence from ancient religious texts and overt focus on Latin as medium of Education.
Q. How did the ideal of individuality and citizenship affect woman?
Ans: The ideal of individuality and citizenship which were the core of Renaissance Spirit excluded woman because woman had limited role in public life and decision making. Men from aristocratic families dominated public life. Though woman dowries were invested in husbands business but woman had little say in them. Often marriages were seen as means to strengthen family business. However, woman from banker and merchant families and humanist view broke the traditional norm and participated in every venture of life. Woman like Fedele, Marchesa, and issabella could achieve what was impossible for them. Thus while idea of individuality and citizenship excluded women, but there were woman who wanted to achieve the identity of their own in a world dominated by men through economic power, property and education.
Q. What led to the revival of Italian Cities?
Ans: After the fall of Roman Empire, the Italian Cities revived from 14th to 17th centuries because these cities (Venice, Florence, Genoa, and Milan) were main centre’s of trade, politics and culture. More over these cities were vibrant and neither Pope nor Feudal lords dominated them. Towns were no longer bound or constrained. Rich bankers and merchants formed an influential class in many towns and participated in governance. The idea of citizenship and sense of pride led to the revival of Italian cities.
Q. How did Humanism affect Art?
Ans: Humanism was a system of thought which extolled man stressed his dignity and worth. Humanist thought consciously de-emphasized religion, focusing on skills and interests developed by individuals though debates and discussions. In fact, the focus was on all that was human as distinct from divine. The Renaissance artists focused on realism, as a result of which they produced art pieces focusing Physical world, man, animals and nature. E.g. Michelangelo’s “The Pieta”, Leonardo Da Vinci’s “The Last supper” and Raphael’s “Madonna”.
Q. Who was William Tyndale? Why he translated Bible into English?
Ans: William Tyndale was English Lutheran who translated bible into English in 1506. He translated Bible to make it available for layman and expose false practices and immoral lives of churchmen.
Q. What do you understand by Dark Ages?
Ans: The period from 5th century to 9th century (Early Middle Ages) is called as dark ages because the fall of Roman Empire resulted in Church’s complete control on people’s minds and all the learning and achievements of Greeks and Romans were given up.
Points to Remember:
1. Jacob Burckhardt views history not merely limited to states and politics based on govt. documents and files but for culture – literature, architecture, painting, history etc. were as much an integral part of history writing.
2. Printing press was invented by Johannes Gutenberg in 1453 when he published 150 copies of Bible. Printing press revolutionized technology of witting and ideas, thought and knowledge spread like wild fire.
3. Renaissance man means a person with many interests and skills of Renaissance period.
4. Telescope was invented by Galileo.
5. Petrarch: also known as first Humanist, was an Italian poet who lover of classical Latin. He renewed interest in the works of Cicero, Virgil and other Roman Writers. He is some Times called as Founder of Humanism.
6. The “Dome of Rock” was built by Caliph Abd al Malik Marwan-II.
7. Raphael: He was great artist of renaissance period in Italy known for painting, poetry, architecture and sculptures. Madonna Painting is the master piece of Raphael.
8. Leonardo da Vinci: He was a Renaissance man with great range of interest from botany and anatomy to mathematics and art. His paintings like “The last Supper” and “Mona Lisa” are master pieces of painting.
9. Michelangelo: A Renaissance man skilled in painting, sculpture and architecture. He is immortalized by the painting on ceiling of Sistine Chapel of St. Peters Church in Rome, the sculpture called “The Pieta” and the design of Dome of St. Peters Church in Rome.
10. Thomas More: Humamist of England who criticized greed and excesses against common man. “Utopia” is his literary master piece.
11. Andrea Vesalius: Vesalius was a Belgian professor of Medicine in the University of Padua Who first dissected the human body.
12. Martin Luther King (1483-1546): Luther was German monk and one of the greatest exponents of reforms in Church. He wrote 95 theses in 1517 in which he exposed the excesses of church and argued that a person does not need priest to establish contact with god. His efforts turned into the founding of Protestant Reformation Movement.
13. Florence, Venice, Genoa, Padua and Bologna were popular Italian cities.
14. Protestant Reformation was a movement kin 15th and 16th century Europe to reform Christianity and excesses of Church. This resulted in split of Christianity into two division’s i.e, Catholics and Protestants.
15. Counter Reformation: To reform the Church and Counter Reformation movement, Counter Reformation movement was launched by Catholics.
16. Renaissance: The term 'Renaissance' is derived from the French word meaning 'rebirth'. It is used to describe this phase of European history because many of the changes experienced between the 14th and 16th centuries were inspired by a revival of the classical art and intellect of Ancient Greece and Rome.
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