Themes in Indian History
Part-Ist
For Class12th
THEME: 01
THE HARAPPAN CIVILISATION (BRICKS, BEADS AND BONES)
ShortAnswerTypeQuestions:
Q. When did Harapan civilization cause to light? Why it is called as Harapan culture?
Ans : The Harapan culture came into light in 1921 when team archeological survey of India under Daya Ram Sahani excavated Harrapa site in Montgomery district of Pakistan Punjab. It was followed by the excavation of Mohenjodaro in Larkana district of Sindh in 1922 under RD Benerjee. It is called as Harapan culture because Harrapa was the site where the remains of this civilization were first identified and excavated. It is also called as Indus valley civilization by sir John Marshal because the civilization originated from Indus valley where largest concentration of Harapan settlements where located and it also refers to same cultural chronological and geographical entity. Some scholars also called it as chalcolithic or Bronze Age civilization because the Harapan people were using tools and implements of copper and bronze along with stone.Period: -
(I) Early Harappa culture – 3500 - 2600 BCE
(I) Mature Harappa culture-2600 to 1900 BCE
(II) Late Harappa culture- After 1900 BCE
Q. List the items of food available to people in Harappa cities. Identify the groups who would have provided these?
Ans: - List of the food items available to Harappa Cities is as under:
1. Wheat (Two varieties), Barley, Lentil, chickpea, sesame, millets and rice. The grains might have been supplied to cities by agricultural communities of surrounding areas.
2. They also ate meat and milk of domesticated animals like sheep, goat, cattle, buffalo, and pig.
3. The presence of bones of wild animals like boar, deer and gharial indicate these animals were either domesticated or meat of such animals was obtained from hunting communities.
4. Bones of fish and fowl are also found. They might have catch fish from rivers and ponds while as fowl was hunted or obtained from forest communities.
Q. How do Archeologists trace the socio-economic differences in Harappa Society? What are the differences that you notice?
Ans: - In the absence of any written material it is difficult to say anything with certainty about socio- economic differences in Harappa society. Archeologists have used certain strategies like the study of burials and artifacts to trace the Socio-Economic differences.
1. Study of Burials: - Studying burials is a strategy to find out social differences. The dead were generally laid in pits. Sometimes, there were differences in the way the burial pit was made. In some instances; the hollowed-out spaces were lined with bricks. Some graves contain pottery and ornaments, perhaps indicating a belief that these could be used in the afterlife. Jewellery has been found in burials of both men and women. Thus there were differences in the burials of dead.
2. Study of Artifacts: -Another strategy is to study artifacts which archeologists have classified as utilitarian and luxurious. Utilitarian objects were articles of daily use made out of ordinary objects while as luxurious artifacts were made of costly, non-local materials or with complicated technologies. Luxurious objects were generally found in large settlements like Mohenjodaro and Harappa and rarely in smaller settlements like Kalibangan. Therefore, sites like Mohenjodaro and Harappa were likely inhabited by wealthy and influential people.
Q. Would you agree that Drainage system of the Harappan cities indicate Town planning? Give reasons for your Answer?
Ans: - One of the striking features of Harrapa town’s was a well planned drainage system. The drains were aligned parallel to main roads and by lanes. These drains were made of bricks cemented with mortar, lime and gypsum. They were covered with big bricks and stones planks which could be lifted easily to clean the drains and drain waste water out of the cities. Smaller drains from houses on both the sides of the streets came and joined a brick laid main channel. Bigger drains which drained the rain water were 2.5 feet to 5 feet in circumference. For sewage from the houses, pits were provided at either side of the street. All this shows that the Indus Valley people took great care to keep their cities neat and clean or a conscious town planning. In the words of A. L. Basham, “No other civilization until that of Roman has so efficient a system of drains”. To McKay, “it is certainly the most complete ancient system as yet discovered”.
Q. List the materials used to make beads in the Harappan civilization? Describe the process by which one kind of bead was made?
Ans: - A variety of materials were used to make beads like Carnelian, jasper, quartz, crystal, agate, Lapis lazuli, Turquoise, & steatite, metals like gold and copper; and shell, faience and terracotta.
These beads were either spherical, cylindrical, disc shaped, barrel shaped and segmented. The stone nodule were chipped into rough shapes and then finely flaked into fine forms. Grinding, polishing and drilling completed the process. Chert drills were used to for drilling the beads. Some beads were decorated by incising, painting or designs etched into them.
LongAnswerTypeQuestions:
Q: - Discuss the unique features of Mohenjodaro?
Ans: - Harapan civilization flourished in the 3rd million BC in North Western Parts of Indian sub continent. It was an agro-commercial, urban and chalcolithic civilization. Its settlements were properly planned according to a set pattern. Mohenjodaro in the Larkana district of Sindh was excavated by a team of archeologists led by R.D. Benerjee in 1922. Some of the unique features of Mohenjodaro are: -
1. TOWN PLANNING: One of the unique features of Mohenjodaro is its town planning on grid pattern. Mohenjodaro is divided into two parts- Western and eastern. Western part is surrounded by brick wall. The western side has an elevated citadel on mud brick platform belonging to rulers and eastern side contains residential houses of varied size.
2. DRAINAGE: Mohenjodaro had an excellent system of sanitation, the waste water from house would pass through small house drains connected with public drains parallel to the roads and streets, and the drains were made of baked bricks and gypsum and covered with stone planks to drain out of the cities the dirty water.
3. ROADS: - the main roads were running from north to south and small roads from east to west cutting each other at right angles. The width of main roads ranged from 13 to 33 feet and those of bye-lanes from 9 to 12 feet. The roads were so aligned to allow the breeze to sweep dirt easily.
4. BRICKS: Mohenjodaro people used burnt bricks of Uniform size, the ratio of length, breadth and height in bricks is 4:2:1 and were rectangular in shape. Some “L” shaped bricks have also been found. The size of bricks was 26cm in length, 12.5cm in width and 5.5 cm in height. The uniformity in bricks indicates that they were using kiln burnt bricks.
5. HOUSING PATTERN: The Mohenjodaro houses were as small as single room belonging to slaves and as large as 30 rooms of both mud bricks and burnt bricks the houses faces by lanes and had a big court yard, the big houses have their own well , bathroom and toilet. The Assembly hall measuring 230×78 feet is unique to Mohenjodaro.
6. GREAT BATH: The great bath of Mohenjodaro is a monumental structure. The bath measures 11.88 meters, 7.01 meters and 2.43 meters in length, width and height respectively. Fresh water to pond is supplied from a well adjacent to it and dirty water is disgorged through corbelled drain. It was used for ablution by priests or as swimming pool by the king.
7. GREAT GRANARY: The Great Granary of Mohenjodaro is 45.71 meters in length and 23.15 meters in width and lies to the west of great bath. It consisted of a series of brick platforms forming the base on which two rows of six granaries. The granary was used to store food grains received as tax from people for king.
8. ARTS AND CRAFTS: The Mohenjodaro people were expert crafts men in spinning and wearing of wool and cotton, pottery, bead making, seal making etc. Some famous art pieces of Mohenjodaro are Bronze dancing female figure, stone bust of priest, steatite seals.
Thus, one can say without any doubt that Harrapa Civilization especially the Mohenjodaro people were advanced in every respect of life.
Q. List the raw materials required for craft production in the Harappan civilisation and discuss how these might have been obtained.
Ans: - The Harrapans needed a variety of items like stone, clay, copper, tin, bronze, gold, faince, shell, carnelian, jasper, crystal, quartz, steatite and timber for various crafts.
These materials were acquired in a number ways. In general the settlements were established near the sources of raw materials like Nageshwar and Balakot for Shells. They acquired Lapis lazuli a costly stone from Shortughai in Afghanistan, Cornelian from Bharuch near Lothal and beads from Chanhodaro and Lothal, stone tools from Sukkur factory.
Recent researches have proved that copper was brought from Oman as chemical analysis has shown that both Omani Copper and Harrapan artifacts have traces of nickel suggesting a common origin. They might have sent expeditions to areas such as the Khetri region of Rajasthan (for Copper & Steatite) and south India (for gold).
Q. Discuss how archaeologists reconstruct the past? Ans: - Archeologists reconstruct the past by:
1. Archeologists reconstruct the past by a study of material remains which they unearth. The artifacts are classified in terms of materials such as stone, clay, metal, bone or ivory. Artifacts are also classified in terms of functions. Archeologists decide whether a particular thing is tool, ornament or something meant for ritual use.
2. Material evidences like pottery, tools and ornaments allow archaeologists to better reconstruct the life in the past.
3. An understanding of the function of an artifact is often shaped by its resemblance with present- day things – beads, querns, stone blades and pots are obvious examples.
4. Archaeologists also try to identify the function of an artifact by investigating the context in which it was found. The significance of first Harrapa seal was not found until it was placed in cultural frame and compared with contemporary Mesopotamia seals.
5. The archeologist move from present to past and reconstruct the religious beliefs and practices by examining seals, some of which seem to depict ritual scenes and others with plant motifs, are thought to indicate nature worship.
1. The archaeologists often move from the known to the unknown, i.e, from the present to the past.
2. Recourse is also taken into indirect reference e.g. cloths on sculptures & remains of crops, saddle querns or pit are studied to identify food.
10. Archaeologists observe the different layers of site and try to find out different things which give picture of socio-economic conditions, religions and cultural life of the past people.
Q. Discuss the functions that may have been performed by rulers in Harappan Society?
Ans: - Some archaeologists are of the opinion that Harappan society had no rulers and that everybody enjoyed equal status. Others feel there was no single ruler; still others say that Mohenjodaro and Harrapa had separate rulers.
However historians argue that there was a single state given the similarity in artifacts, the evidence for planned settlements, the standard ratio of brick size and the establishments of settlements near sources of raw material. As of now, the last theory seems the most plausible as it is unlikely that entire communities could have collectively made and implemented such complex decisions.
i. There are indications of complex decisions being taken and implemented in Harappan society. Take for instance the extraordinary uniformity of Harappan artifacts as evident in pottery seals weights and bricks.
ii. Notably bricks though obviously not produced in any single centre were of a uniform ratio throughout the region, from Jammu to Gujarat. We have also seen that settlements were strategically set up in specific locations for various reasons.
iii. Besides, labour was mobilized for making bricks and for the construction of massive walls and platforms. Who organized these activities?
Historians think the rulers might have performed all these works. Under the guidance and supervision of the rulers, plans and layouts of the city were prepared, big buildings, palaces, forts, tanks, wells, canals, Granaries were constructed. Roads lanes and drains were also constructed and cleanliness was maintained under the overall supervision of the ruler. He used to issue common acceptable coins or seals, weights and measurements. He used to play active role to defend cities or state from foreign attack.
VeryShortAnswerTypeQuestions:
Q. “Our knowledge about the Indus Valley Civilization is poorer than that of the other Civilizations”. Explain it by your arguments?
Ans:- The major reason behind our poorer knowledge about the Indus Valley Civilization than that of the other Civilizations because the script of that age has hitherto not been deciphered. Hence, we only know about the period and development of this Civilization on the basis of more speculation. Scripts are that sole basis through which we can gather thorough knowledge about the art, literature, customs, dresses, function and religion of any Civilizations.
Q. What were the confusions in the mind of Cunningham while studying Harappan civilization?
Ans: - Cunningham used the accounts left by Chinese Buddhist pilgrims who had visited the subcontinent between the fourth and seventh centuries CE. He thought that Indian history began with the first cities in the Ganga valley. In fact, Cunningham’s main interest was in the archaeology of the Early Historic (c. sixth century BCE-fourth century CE) and later periods.
Q. What were the differences in the techniques adopted by Marshall and Wheeler in studying Harappan civilization?
Ans: - Marshall tended to excavate along regular horizontal units, measured uniformly throughout
the mound, ignoring the strategraphy of the site. This meant that all the artifacts recovered from the same unit were grouped together, even if they were found at different strategraphic layers. As a result, valuable information about the context of these finds was irretrievably lost.
R.E.M. Wheeler rectified this problem. Wheeler recognized that it was necessary to follow the strategraphy of the mound rather than dig mechanically along uniform horizontal lines.
Q. “Burials is a better source to trace social differences prevalent in the Harappan civilization”. Discuss?
Ans: - Studying burials is a strategy to find out social differences. The dead were generally laid in pits. Sometimes, there were differences in the way the burial pit was made. In some instances; the hollowed-out spaces were lined with bricks. Some graves contain pottery and ornaments, perhaps indicating a belief that these could be used in the afterlife. Jewellery has been found in burials of both men and women. Thus there were differences in the burials of dead.
Q. Write a note on the agricultural technology of Harrapans?
Ans: - The existence of urban centers was impossible without the sufficient agricultural advancement. Agriculture was the chief occupation of the Harrapans. The prevalence of agriculture is indicated by finds of grains. But it is more difficult to reconstruct actual agricultural practices. Archaeologists have found evidence of a ploughed field at Kalibangan. Representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was known, and archaeologists suggest that oxen were used for ploughing. Terracotta models of the plough have been found at sites in Cholistan and at Banawali. The field had two sets of furrows at right angles to each other, suggesting that two different crops were grown together. Most Harappan sites are located in semi-arid lands, where irrigation was probably required for agriculture. Traces of canals have been found at Shortughai in Afghanistan. It is also likely that water drawn from wells was used for irrigation. Besides, water reservoirs found in Dholavira may have been used to store water for agriculture.
Q. How can you say that the Harappan culture was an urban one? Or Write down the main features of Harappan Civilisation?
Ans. The following examples show that the Harappan culture was an urban one:
(a) The cities were well planned and thickly populated.
(b) The roads were straight and wide.
(c) The houses were made of burnt bricks and contained more than one storey.
(d) Every house had a well and a bathroom.
(e) The drainage system was excellent with house drains emptying into street drains.
(f) The citadel of Harappa had public buildings.
(g) Lothal had a dockyard and was an important trading centre.
(h) After the decline of the Harappan culture, town planning was forgotten and there was absence of city life for about a thousand years.
Q. Describe extent of Harrapa Civilisation?
Ans: - The explorations, excavations and researches have shown that Harapan civilization was not confined to the Indus valley alone as postulated by S.J Marshal. Although the cultural zone of this civilization lie in Sindh and Punjab mainly un Indus valley it spread southward and eastward covering Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Baluchistan, Sindh, Gujrat, Western UP and Northern Maharashtra. In short the Harapan civilization extend from Sutkangendor in Baluchistan (in west) to
Alamgirpur in Western U.P (In east) and from Manda in Jammu (in north) to Daimabad in Northern Maharashtra (in south). The entire area of Harapan civilization is triangular in Shape and accounts for 12, 99,600 Sq ms and as such was the largest among ancient civilizations. However, the actual distance from north to south is 1100 Km and from east to west over 1550 Km.
Q: - Write a short note on Decline of Harappan civilisation?
Ans:- In the absence of any written material or historical evidence, scholars have made various speculations regarding the cause for the decline of Harapan civilization some cities like Harrapa, Mohenjodaro and Kalibangan saw a gradual decline in urban planning and later were abandoned the main factors put forward by various scholars about the decline of Harappan civilization are :-
1. FLOODS: Scholars like R.L.Rakes believe that Harappan civilization came into an end because of heavy floods in river Indus. It has been found out that around 2000 BC some major climatic changes started occurring in the Indus Valley. These changes had led to floods in the plains and cities. Most of the cities in the Harappan Civilization have been found in a condition as if these had been first abandoned and then rebuilt.
2. EARTHQUAKES: Some scholars in the absence of written or historical evidence suggested earthquakes as the cause of sudden disappearance of Harappan civilization. Harappa civilization was in the area of active seismic zone and as such frequent earthquakes might have caused the sudden decline of Harrapa Civilization.
3. FAMINES: Some scholars believe famous and epidemics as the cause of decline of Harapan civilization. There was a fall in the average rainfall in the cities leading to the formation of desert-like condition. This led to the decline in agriculture on which most of the trade was dependent. Owing to this, people of the Indus Valley started shifting to some other location leading to the decline in the entire civilization.
4. FOREIGN INVASION: M. Wheeler believes that Harappan civilization came into end because of foreigners i.e. Aryans invasion. It is commonly believed that the Aryans were skilled fighters, whose epics mentioned about their victory over the great cities. The human remains found during excavation of Indus valley point towards some violent cause of their death.
In short from second millennium B.C Harappan civilization showed signs of decay and by 1750 BC Harrapan civilization had come into an end in India.
Q. What light do seals and terracotta figures supposedly throw on the religious practices of Harappa People?
Ans: - Archeologists believe that objects which are unusual or unfamiliar may have a religious significance. Consequently the terracotta figures of women heavily jeweled some with elaborate head dresses are regarded as mother goddess. They indicate the worship of earth and are regarded as source of power and fertility. Seals with plant motifs are thought to indicate nature worship. Animals depicted on seals like the Unicorn and humped bull was probably regarded as sacred. On several other seals is shown a cross legged in a yogic [posture and surrounded by animals like deer’s, elephant, tiger, rhino and bull. This image on seal is regarded as Proto Shiva or lord Shiva of Later Hindu mythology. The great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro, fire Altars of Kalibangan & Lothal had a ritual significance. Conical stone objects found have been classified as Lingas.
Q. What are seals? What are they used for?
Ans: - Seals are the most distinctive products of the Harappa Culture. Harappa Seals were generally square or rectangular tablets of clay with boss on one side and engravings on the other. The seals
usually had a line of writing on top. They are also engraved with figures of animals such as unicorn, humped bull, goat, buffalo etc. These engraved figures had some meaning to convey.
These seals are valuable source of information especially about religious practices. They were used to stamp goods as a means of identifying owner of goods in trade.
Q. What is the difference between Utilitarian and Luxurious artifacts?
Ans: - Utilitarian artifacts are the objects of daily use made from ordinary materials such as stone or clay e.g. pottery, stone tools, needles etc. Luxurious artifacts on the other hand are made from costly non local materials or with complicated technologies.
Q. How do we know that the Harappa Civilization trade relation with other countries?
Ans:- Harappa had trade relations with Afghanistan from where they brought lapis lazuli, Mesopotamia and Oman. Evidence of trade with Mesopotamia can be seen by the fact that many objects of Harappa culture like beads, golden pin and seals have been recovered from Mesopotamia. Sumerian articles like a model ram, an edge and small pottery ring have been found in India. Mesopotamia texts mention two intermediary trading centers, Dilmun (Modern Bahrain), Magan (Oman) and Meluha (Perhaps India) where goods of Mesopotamia and Indus Valley were exchanged. The depiction of ships and boats on seals is indicative of sea journey for trade. Archeological sources suggest Harrapans brought copper from Oman, Khetri mines of Rajasthan.
Key concepts in nutshells
Metals known:- Gold, Silver, Copper, Bronze.
Scripts:- The Harappan scripts are undeciphered. There are 375-400 signs. The script was written from right to left.
Craft:- The place Chanhudaro was totally involved for craft production. There were experts in bead makings, shell cutting, seal making, weight making. Lothal was also one of the important places for craft production.Modes of Transportation:- Bullock carts and Boats.
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