THEME – 2
Kings, Farmers and Towns
(C 600 BCE – 600 CE)
ShortAnswerTypeQuestions:
Q. Discuss the evidence for craft production in early historic cities. In what ways is this different from the evidence from Harappan cities?
Ans. Excavation has been conducted at a number of early historic cities. We have got several evidences for craft production in these cities.
I) People make bowls and dishes of very fine type of pottery with a glossy finish. This pottery is known as the northern black Polished ware (NBPW). The fine earthen pottery was probably used by rich people in towns.
II) Votive inscriptions tell us about the craftsmen of cities organised into guilds or shrenis.
III) Use of Punch marked coins as a mode of exchange points out to specialization in goods and crafts.
IV) In early cities ornaments, tools, weapons, vessels, figurines, made of a wide range of materials such as gold, silver, copper, bronze, ivory, glass, shell and terracotta.
Differences:
a) Traces of houses and different structures have also been recovered in early historic cities.
However they are unlike the Harappan cities.
b) Craft production in Harrapa Cities is based on material remains like sytone nodules, waste material and whole shells.
c) The Harappan’s did not know the use of iron. Therefore we can say they did not make different tools and implements of iron. On the other hand we get sufficient evidences that iron was used by the early historic cities people.
Q. Describe salient features of Mahajanapadas?
Ans:- The sixth century BC is marked by the emergence of sixteen (16) Mahajanapadas (great Territorial states). Among them Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa, Panchala, Kuru, Avanti, Gandhara, Vajji and Chedi are frequently mentioned. The main features of Mahajanapadas are:
1. These Mahajanapadas were ruled either by kings or Ganas or Sanghas (oligarchy).
2. Each Mahajanapada had its own capital often fortified e.g., Rajgir the Capital of Magadh.
3. Permanent standing army and regular bureaucracies was maintained.
4. Dharmasutras laid down norms for kings and people. A king must be Kshatriya.
5. Function of the king is to collect taxes and tributes from people to meet financial requirements. The loot and plunder during raids on neighboring states were legitimized.
Q. How do Historians reconstruct the lives of ordinary people?
Ans: - While inscriptions are the proclamations of king to his officials and subjects, they never speak of their defects and weaknesses. More over ordinary people rarely left any accounts of their thoughts and life. Thus the lives of ordinary people are written by a historian in following ways:
1. By examining stories contained in anthologies like Jataka and Panchtantra.
2. Gandatindu Jataka written in Pali describes the plight of subjects under wicked King. The fear of robbers and tax collectors led people to abandon their villages.
3. Remains of pottery and houses give us an idea of the life of common people.
4. The nature of taxation system and treatment of common masses as mentioned in various sources gives us an idea about the life of an ordinary citizen.
Q. Compare and contrast the list of things given top Pandyan chiefs with those provided in the village of Dangun. Do you notice any similarity of difference?
Ans: - As it is mentioned in source ‘3’ people brought gifts to show their honour to a winner king they were ivory, fragrant wood, fans made of the hair of deer, honey, medicinal plants, fruits, flower, onions, sugarcane etc . However in another source (source 8) people are exempted from obligation to provide items produced in the village of Danguna include grass, skin of animals, salt, flowers and milk. The things he got in the forest and in the village of Danguna were quite different to them. It was due to the availability of things in the different places. In both the list the only item common is “Flower”.
Q. List some of the problems faced by Epigraphists?
Ans: - The study of inscriptions is called as epigraphy, and one who studies inscriptions is epigraphist. Inscriptions were carved on seals, stone pillars, rocks, copper plates, temples walls, wooden tables, and bricks or image. Epigraphists face certain technical limitations in their study like:
1. On many inscriptions letters are very faintly engraved and thus reconstructions of the past are difficult to make.
2. Some inscriptions have been damaged or have letters missing. Besides, it was not always easy to be
sure about the exact meaning of the words used in inscriptions, some of which may be specific to a particular place of time
3. Moreover all inscriptions have not been deciphered. Many inscriptions have not survived to supplement the inaccurate or partial information of other sources.
4. Many inscriptions were commissioned by kings and contents of the inscriptions were not necessarily correct.
5. Epigraphists have to constantly match terms of content, style, language and paleography before dating and concluding about authorship of inscriptions.
6. Epigraphists have to constantly assess statements and words to make meaning of sentences clear.
In brief epigraphists alone does not provide an accurate understanding of political, economic history for which historians often questioned both old and new evidences.
LongAnswerTypeQuestions:
Q. Discuss the main features of Mauryan Administration?
Ans: On the basis of fragments of Magasthanese book ‘Indica’, Kautaliya’s book ‘Arthashastra’ and Ashokan Edicts; we can draw the picture of Mauryan System of administration. Mauryas by contrast to earlier smaller kingdoms, ruled over an empire and well-organised with a very elaborate Centralized system of administration. The entire empire was divided in to various levels of administration.
A. Central Administration:-In the central administration the King was the supreme and central figure around which the whole administration revolved. He was the supreme head of the Judiciary, Executive, Military and other departments of administration. He was assisted by Mantriparishad consisting of Mahamantri (Chief Minister), Purohit (High priest), Senapati (Commander in Chief of Army), and Yuvraj (Heir Apparent). The two key officers of Central govt were Treasurer and Collector.
B. Provincial Administration: - The Mauryan Empire besides capital Patliputra was divided into four provinces placed under the control of a ‘Kumaramatyas’ (governor) a prince of the royal family. Provinces were divided into districts, villages and towns.
C. Municipal Administration: - Magasthanese in Indica says a city was administered by a board of 30 members divided into 6 sub-committees each having 5 members. Apart from these boards, the Municipal Council collectively looked after Public buildings, water supply, roads, gardens, hospitals. Administration and officials mentioned in Ashokan Edicts.
D. Besides the capital patliputra, there were four provinces.
E. Among the officers of district discussed in Ashokan edicts is the Rajuka. Rajuka (mentioned in Piller edict IV) were responsible to survey and assessment of land, tax collection. He also performed some judicial functions.
F. The officials mentioned in Ashokan Inscritions are those connected with the administration of the city and those who worked among frontier people.
G. Ashoka appointed Dhamma Mahamatas as officers to propagate the principles of Dhamma. They also keep record of gifts given to religious establishments.
H. Pativedaks were reporters. Their main function was to report to the king about the affairs of state in different parts of country.
Q. This is a statement made by one of the best known epigraphists of the twentieth century, D.C. Sircar: There is no aspect of life, culture and activities of the Indians that is not reflected in inscriptions. Discuss?
Ans: Inscriptions are very important as a source of history reconstruction. D.C. Sircar has correctly
urged that there is no aspect of life, culture and activities of the Indians that is not reflected in inscriptions. E.g.
1. Inscriptions are permanent records commissioned by those whose achievements/ideas were recorded in them. Some inscriptions carry dates. Others are dated on the basis of paleography or styles of writing with a fair amount of precision.
2. Description of gifts made to religious institution. These mention the name of the donor, and sometimes specify his/her occupation as well.
3. Information about people of the Mauryan age and inscriptions: They tell us about people who lived in towns: washing folk, weavers, scribes, carpenters, potters, smiths, including goldsmiths and blacksmiths, officials, religious teachers, merchants and kings. Sometimes organizations of craft producer’s guilds or srenis are mentioned in inscriptions and texts. These probably procured raw materials regulated production and marketed the finished produce.
4. Information about trade and inscriptions: Around the same time there is evidence for long distance trade, historians combine evidence from a variety of sources to reconstruct and understand this process.
Q. Discuss the notions of kingship that developed in post Mauryan period?
Ans: - In post Mauryan period many kings sought to uplift the status of Monarch with divine Theory of Kignship. Monarch began to talk of divine sanction to rule the people. This was done especially by Kushans. The notion of kingship which they wished to project can be seen in the coins and sculptures of the times.
Kushana Kings called themselves Devaputra (Son Of God) possibly inspired by Chinese rulers who called themselves as sons of heaven. The sculptures of Kushana Kings have been found in a shrine at Mat near Mathura and a shrine in Afghanistan. Historians feel this indicates Kushana considers themselves gods or equivalent to gods. Some tribal republican states reveal that they came to be headed by gods in whose name the coins were issued.
Gupta rulers being dependent on samantas added other epithets which raised a king to the level of gods e.g. Samudra Gupta has been called as the God dwelling on earth. Literature, coins and inscriptions helped us in creating history of those days. Very often poets would describe the monarch to praise them but giving insights into the history and kingship too. A good example is of Harisena who praised Samudra Gupta in Allahabad Piller Inscription (Prayag Prashasti).
The reasons for kings claiming divine status in post Mauryan period are existence of small monarchies and chieftains with Kushans and Satvahansa as major power, autonomous Brahmanical grants, Autonomous city govts in the name of Guilds (also known as Shrenis) and foreign origin dyansities acquired legitimacy to their authority by high sounding titles.
Q. To what extent were agricultural practices transformed in 6th century BCE to 6th century CE?
Ans: - The demand for taxes increased in the post 600BC. In order to meet the excessive demand of taxes without taking into consideration lesser produce, forced the farmers to increase productivity. This resulted in the use of new tools and practices in agriculture. The important ones are as follows:
1. Use of Plough: plough was hardly heard in past but they became common from 6th BC. The Plough with iron tip began used in Ganga and Kaveri basin where rainfall was abundant. The soil nutrients were exploited and agricultural production increased many fold.
2. Use of hoe: Another tool that changed agricultural production was hoe. The farmers in semi arid and hard soil areas like Punjab, Rajasthan and hilly areas of North East and Deccan used spade for digging and other purpose.
3. Transplantation: The transplantation method is paddy production especially in areas with plenty of water increased agricultural production.
4. Artificial Irrigation: Apart from natural sources of water, farmers began to use artificial forms of irrigation where rainfall was deficient. This prompted rulers to dig wells and built ponds and canals. E.g, Sudershana Lake in Girnar Gujrat built by Mauryas was repaired by Saka Rudraman and Guptas.
5. Differences in rural society: In Buddhist literature, there is description of small and big farmers (Gahapati). Early Tamil Literature mentioned different categories of people living in the village- Large Land owners (Vellalar), Ploughmen (Uzhavar) and slaves (Adimai). It is likely these differences were based on differential access to land, labour and the new technologies.
VeryShortAnswerTypeQuestions:
Q. Why 6th century BCE is called as Second Urbanization?
Ans: - The period from 6th Century BCE to 6th CE was marked by agricultural extension, demographic revolution, emergence of states with capital cities and hence second urbanization. During this period a good no of people were engaged in non-food producing activities. Towns grow on surplus mode of cultivators. Society was divided into rich and poor classes. Cities were dependent on trade characterized by craft specialization. These urban settlements were also associated with the use of high grade deluxe pottery, the northern Black polished ware.
Q. What are megaliths?
Ans. Megaliths were elaborate stone structures in central and south India in first millennium BCE. These were kept on the burials. Dead were buried with a wide range of iron tools and weapons.
Q. Why six century BCE often considered as a major turning point in Indian history?
Ans. six century BCE is an era associated with early states and cities, growing use of iron, the development of coin. It also witnessed the growth of diverse system of thoughts including Buddhism and Jainism.
Q. Examine the sources of knowledge with us to know about India of the Mauryan Age?
Ans. Indica: is written by Magasthanese, the Greek ambassador to Mauryan court. The book does not survive in full but quotations occur in the works of Strabo, Diodorous etc. It depicts the contemporary administration, society, political and economic condition of India in the most significant way.
1. Arthashastra: Arthashastra was written in Sanskrit by Chanakya (Kautaliya) the mentor of founder of Mauryan Empire Chandragupta Maurya. The book is in 15 Chapters, 180 sub-chapters. It is considered one of the master pieces of states craft and public administration. It gives clear and methodical information about Mauryan economy and political conditions.
2. Vishakh Dutta’s Mudrarakshas: This significant text delineates the destruction of Nanda dynasty at the hands of Chandragupta Mauryan.
3. Jain and Buddha Literature: The literature of both of these religious bears information regarding the contemporary Indian society along with it politics etc.
4. Inscriptions of Asoka. The Inscriptions of Asoka located at several places also throw light on the administration, religion, society, caste system etc. of the Mauryan age.
Q. In which languages and script, Ashokan Edicts were written?
Ans. James Princep an officer in the mint of the East India Company was able to decipher Ashokan Edicts in 1838. These inscriptions were written in Brahmi, Greek, Kharosthi, and Aramaic and language was Prakrit, Aramaic or Greek.
Q. What is Agrahara land grant?
Ans: - An Agrahara was a land granted to Brahmans, who were usually exempted from paying land revenue and other dues to the king, and was often given the right to collect these dues from local people.
Q. Discuss factors responsible for the rise of Magadha -
Ans: The factors responsible for the rise of Mahajanapada Magadh are:
1. Rich Iron deposits
2. Fertile soil.
3. Availability of elephants in forest.
4. Strong fortified capitals – Rajgir and Pataliputra and
5. Contribution of some powerful rulers like Bimbisara, Ajatasattu and Mahapadma Nanda.
Q. What are the similarities and differences between Varna and Jati?
Ans: - Similarity: Both Varna (caste) and jati refer to social categories based on birth.
Differences: While the number of varnas is restricted to four, there were no restrictions on the number of jatis. Whenever a new social group was integrated in Brahmanical system which could not fit in the four fold division they were accorded jati status.
Q. What strategies were evolved by the Brahmins to enforce Caste System?
Ans: The Brahmins stated that the caste system is of divine origin and hence it norms had to be obeyed. Kings were told that their Dharma included enforcing caste norms within their kingdom. To ensure there was not any rebellion, the people were brain washed to believe in the caste by birth accorded on the basis of past deeds.
Q. Explain briefly main features of Asoka’s Dhamma?
ANS; - Dhamma is the Prakrit form of Sanskrit word Dharma which means Piety or the path of righteousness. The main features of Ashoka Dhamma are: Respect to elders, love for young and kindness to servants, Religious tolerance to other religions, Liberal policies towards Brahmanas, Shramanas and Appointment of Dhamma Mahamattas.
Q. Which war transformed Ashoka and Why?
Ans: - Ashoka attacked Kalinga in 261 BC in which more than one hundred thousand were killed and over fifty thousand were captured. The huge loss of lives and the destruction caused by war filled the heart of Ashoka with remorse. He gave up the policy of Digvijaya (Conquest by war) and adopted the policy of Dhamma Vijaya (Conquest by heart).
Points to remember:
1. Numismatics: The study of coins is known as numismatics. Excavations at numerous sites have revealed the hordes of coins. These coins are important source as they furnish information regarding dates, titles, donations, metal and on the economy of the state.
2. Punch Marked Coins: Punch marked coins are the earliest metallic coins issued in 6th century BCE. They are punch marked because designs were punched or stamped.
3. Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas were the kingdoms that emerged in Tamilkam i.e, present day Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala.
4. Harisena was the court poet of Samudra Gupta who wrote Allahabad Piller inscription (Prayag Prashasti) in Sanskrit to highlight the achievements of his king Samudra Gupta.
5. Jatakas were stories written in Pali around middle of first millennium CE. These are around 500 in number and mostly in Buddhist theme.
6. Shungas, Kanvas, Indo-Greeks, Shakas, Satvahans, Kushans and Guptas were the main dyansities that emerged in post Maurya period.
7. Kushanas were India first to issue gold coins in India.
8. Gahapati was the owner, master or head of a household. He exercised control over woman, children, slaves and workers who shared common residence. He was the owner of the resources- land, animals and other things that belonged to the household.
9. The Sangam Literature which is love and war poetry written by bards between 100BCE and 250 CE are the main sources of information about ancient south India.
10. Ashoka is called in his edicts as “Devanam” means Beloved of gods and “Piyadassi” means pleasant to behold.
11. Dhamma Mahamattas were Special officers appointed by Ashoka to spread the message of Dhamma & to record grants and donations made by people to religious establishments.
12. Prabhavati Gupta was the daughter of Gupta ruler Chandragupta Vikramaditya. She was married to Vakataka king Rudrasena.
13. Land grants from small plots to vast stretches were given to Brahmans (Agrahara Land Grants), religious institutions and feudal lords (Samantas) to extend cultivation, maintain control on feudal lords and to win allies.
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