KINSHIP, CASTE AND CLASS Class 12 th History Theme 3

 

THEME 3

KINSHIP, CASTE AND CLASS

EARLY SOCIETIES AND ECONOMY (600 BC-600CE)

ShortAnswerTypeQuestions:

Q Explain why Patriliny may have been particularly important among elite families?

Ans: - Patriliny is the practice of tracing decent through the father’s line. The principle of Patriliny would have been essential for elite families because:

a. As per Dharmashastras to carry forward the dynasty the family wished for a son not daughters.

b. In a Rig Vedic hymn, a father wishes on the marriage of his daughter for best sons with the grace of Lord Shiva.

c. In royal families the acquisition of throne was included in the inheritance. After the death of king his eldest son was supposed to inherit the throne.

d. After the death of parents, the property was equally distributed among all the sons. Daughters were denied any share other than Stri Dhana.

Thus, royal families followed the principle of Patriliny since 600 BC. However exceptions were also there. In the absence of son to deceased king, his brother or relatives or even woman can claim the throne. E.g. Prabhavati Gupta, Rama.

Q. Discuss whether kings in early states were invariably Kshatriyas?

Ans: - The shastras clearly state that only Kshatriyas can become kings. But there is enough evidence to show rulers of many dynasties had different origins. While certain Buddhist texts refer that the Mauryan Kings belonged to the Kshatriyas caste, Brahmanical texts describe them as being of low origin. The Shungas and Kanvas who succeeded the Mauryas were Brahmins not Kshatriyas. The Saka rulers who came from Central Asia were regarded as Mlechhas (Impure or Out caste) by Brahmins. The most renowned ruler of Satvahana dynasty, Gautami Putra Satkarni claimed to be unique Brahmin and a destroyer of Kshatriyas.

Thus, it is clear that Political power was effectively open to anyone who could garner support and the necessary resources and rarely depended on the birth as a Kshatriyas.

Q. Compare and contrast the Dharma or norms mentioned in the stories of Drona, Hidimba and Matanga of Mahabharatha?

Ans: - Dhrona: Dhrona was a Brahman who taught archery to Kuru Princes. Imparting education was

the pious deed of Brahmans. However he refused to teach eklavya as he was a forest dwelling nishada (Lower caste). Thus social norms valued birth over merit. Eklavay had achieved great skill in archery, and as guru dakshina Drona demanded his right thumb. Respecting gurus words Eklavya presented his thumb. Dronacharya had promised Arjuna that he would remain unsurpassed in archery and he kept his words.

Hidamba: Hidmaba was a lady demon (Rakshini). They were man eaters. One day her brother asked her to catch and eat Pandavas. She did not obey orders instead fell in love with Bhima Pandava. She married him and a Rakshasa boy Gatotkacha was born to her.

Matanga: Matanga was a Bodhisattva born in Chandala family. He married Ditta Mangalikha daughter of a merchant. A son was born to him named Mandavya Kumara. Mandavya learnt three Vedas. He used to offer food to 1600 Brahmans every day. When his father dressed in rags with a clay bowl in his hands appeared before him, he refused to offer food to him. He considered his father out caste and the food was meant for Brahmans only. Matanaga advised his son not to be proud of his birth. He disappeared in to the air. When Ditta knew this incident, she went after Matanga seeking forgiveness. She performed her religious duty. A donor is always considered generous. But Mandavya failed to follow the norms of religion and generosity.

Q. In what ways was the Buddhist theory of a social contract different from the Brahmanical view of society derived from the Purusha Sukhta?

Ans. (I) The Purusha Sukhta says that four varnas emerged from the Brahma. These varnas where Brahmans, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudras In which the Bahamans enjoyed the supreme position in the society. The Kshatriyas were warriors, they ran the administration. The Vaishya were engaged in trade and agriculture. The Shudras where destined to serve the three Varnas. Only the birth was the basis of status and respect in the society. These divisions were divinely ordained as the four social categories were supposed to have come from the body of Purusha. Thus division cannot be changed nor the position as Brahmins and Kshatriyas challenged.

The Buddhism did not accept this concept. They rejected birth as the basis of social prestige. According to Sutta Pitak, human beings initially lived a happy life. But the greed and deceitfulness lead to conflicts. This led to need of a leader who could maintain order. The institution of kingship emerged by people’s choice who were paid for the services by levying taxes on the people. Thus, a social contract existed between the king and people.

LongAnswerTypeQuestions:

Q. This is what a famous historian of Indian literature Maurice Winternitz, wrote about the Mahabharata: “just because Mahabharata represents more of an entire literature _ and contains so much and so many kinds of things….. (it) gives (s) us an insight into the most profound depths of the sold of the Indian folk”….Discuss.

Ans. There are several literary sources to reconstruct ancient Indian history. Mahabharata is one of them. Its importance has been recognized not only by Indian historian but also by foreign especially western historians like Maurice Winternitz. Mahabharata was written in Sanskrit by Ved Vyas and represents more of an entire literature.

Historians usually classify the contents of the present text under two broad sections that is Narrative (like stories) and Didactic (prescriptions about social norms). This division is by no means watertight – the didactic sections include stories and the narrative often contains a social message. However generally historians agree that the Mahabharata was meant to be dramatic moving story and that few portions were added later. Interestingly the text is described as an itihasa (History)

within early Sanskrit tradition. Some historians think that the memory of an actual conflict amongst kinfolk was preserved in the narrative others point out that there is no other corroborative evidence of the battle.

The original story was probably composed by charioteer bards known as sutas who generally accompanied Kshatriya warriors to the battlefield and composed poems celebrating their victories and other achievements. These compositions circulated orally. Then, from the fifth century BCE, Brahmanas took over the story and began to commit it to writing. This was the time when chiefdoms such as those of the Kurus and Panchalas around whom the story of the epic revolves, were gradually becoming kingdoms. It seems that the new kingdoms want their itihasa to be recorded and preserved more systematically.

The Mahabharata, like any other major epic, contains descriptions of battles, forests places and settlements. This book described not only Kinship, political life of that period but also social priority based on caste, sex and social classes. We can find about some major feature of family life such as ideal of Patriliny, different forms of marriage and rules related with marriage system. Social differences prevailed in the social system of India. Some thrones were occupied even by non- Kshatriya kings. The epic also deals about jati and social mobility etc.

Q. Discuss whether Mahabharata could have been the work of a single author?

Ans: - Mahabharata is the longest epic consisting of one lac verses traditionally said to be written by sage Ved Vyas in Sanskrit. But originally the story was composed by charioteer-bards known as sutas who accompanied the warrior into the battle and composed poems, celebrating their victories and other achievements. This was done orally. When Kaurvas and Panchalas, central to the story of Mahabharata were evolving into kingdoms, the Brahmins began story writing in a systematic way. Some parts of story reflect old social values were replaced by new ones. During 200BCE to 200CE Krishna began to be identified with Lord Vishnu who had become popular during this time. Therefore from 200 to 400 CE large number of verses including Baghvad Gita in which Krishna played a crucial role were added to Mahabharata.

Thus, Mahabharata which now has one lac verses became voluminous epic which cannot be the work of a single author.

Q. How were gender differences important in early societies? Give reasons for your answer?

Ans: - Gender in early societies was important as it led to differences in access to property resources. Patriliny means tracing descent from father to son to grandson was generally followed. However Satvahana's and Andhras were exceptions who claimed descent from mother e.g. Gautmiputra Satkarni. Sons unlike daughters were considered important to carry forward the dynasty. Exogamy marriage i.e, marriage outside the close relation was considered desirable. After marriage a woman was known by the gotra of her husband instead of parents. The game of dice in which Pandavas common wife was lost to Kuru’s indicates that wives were probably treated as the property of their husbands. According to law book Manu Smriti, father’s estate after death is divided among the sons, a special share goes to eldest, and however women were denied any share in paternal property. Women had control over stridhana (gifts at the time of marriage) which could be inherited by her children. There are textual evidences where in the woman of upper caste like Vakataka queen Prabhavati had access to resources. But generally land, money and cattle was controlled by men. The woman was most respected as mother. The Satvahana rulers were identified with Mother. Mahabharata attests gender differences. Gandhari’s request to Duryodhana and Yudhishtras loss of wife Draupadi in the game of dice are best examples.

Q. Discuss the evidences that suggest that Brahmanical prescriptions/texts about kinship and marriage were not universally followed?

Ans: - Brahmanical prescriptions about kinship and marriage were not universally followed can be proved with following examples:

Kinship: In Sanskrit texts ‘Kula’ was used to designated families and ‘jati’ for larger kinfolk. The term Vansha was used for Lineage. Very often people belonging to same family share food and other resources. They live, work and perform rituals together. Some societies regarded Cousins as blood relations whereas others do not as historians retrieve information from elite families but very hard to reconstruct the familial relationship of ordinary people. According to the shastras only Kshatriyas could become rulers. But there were many ruling families that claim to be Brahmanas or Vaishyas. Women were not allowed to share the property of their father. Exceptions are there such as Prabhavati Gupta.

Marriage: the Brahmans laid down codes of social behavior later enshrined in Dharmashastras. These texts recognized eight forms of marriage. Among them marriage of four types were considered good while as rest four as condemnable. Exogamy marriage or marriage outside ones kin or gotra was general rule. However Satvahansa did not follow exogamy rule. The women of higher castes were married on right time and right age while as nothing like that happened among lower castes. Stridhana or gift to daughters on their marriage was considered as religious duty by father.

Generally, marriage took place within the caste. Sometimes marriage took place outside the caste such as Bhima and Hidimba.

Q. The Mahabharata is a good source to study the social value of ancient times Prove it? 

Ans. Yes, Mahabharata is a good source to study the social value of ancient times.

1. The Mahabharata gives a description of the social values of the period as essential. It is story between two set of warring cousins and thus, centre on conflict in the society.

2. Patriliny succession to property is emphasized.

3. The Mahabharata reinforces the relations between the caste and the occupation as prescribed in the Dharmashastras through stories. For example the story of Eklavya.

4. The Mahabharata gives a description of the caste system and interrelation of the different caste group. This is evident from the story of Hidimba’s marriage with Bhima.

5. The Mahabharata also provides evidence to patriarchal society, for example Yudhishtira staking Draupadi, his wife in the game of dice.

6. Different types of marriages were practiced in the society. Kanyadan or gift of daughter in marriage was considered an important religious duty of the father.

7. It provides information about Varna and different professions.

Q. Explain the relationship between the Varna system and the  occupation  according  to Brahmanical texts. How did the Brahmanas reinforce these?

Ans. Varna a Sanskrit word with several meanings including type, order, colour or class, was used to refer to social classes in Hindu texts like the Manusmriti. These and other Hindu texts classified the society in principle into four varnas. These are Brahmins, Kshatriya, Vaishyas, and Shudras.

The Purusha Sukhta hymn of Rig Veda says that four varnas emerged from the Brahma. In This Varna system Bahamans enjoyed the supreme position in the society. The Kshatriyas were

worriers, they ran the administration. The Vaishya were engaged in trade and agriculture. The Shudras where destined to serve the three Varnas. Only the birth was the basis of status and respect in the society. These divisions were divinely ordained as the four social categories were supposed to have come from the body of Purusha. Thus division cannot be changed nor the position of Brahmins and Kshatriyas challenged.

The Brahmanas enforced these by:

(a) Divine origin of Varna System.

(b) Advising kings to enforce the order.

(c) Caste based on birth.

Q. How historians have tried to explain prevalence of Polyandry in the Mahabharata?

Ans: Historians proved in Mahabharata the prevalence of polyandry by referring to marriage of Draupadi with Pandava brothers. This episode has been explained in a variety of ways.

1. The present day historians described polyandrous union prevalent among the ruling families. But the practice fell in disfavor with Brahmins.

2. Some historians say though undesired by Brahmins the practice was and is still prevalent among the people in Himalayan regions.

3. Other historians have attributed to crisis situation suggesting the shortage of woman due to constant warfare led to adoption of this practice.

Q7. How the Manuscript has defined the features and functions of chandalas? What some Chinese travelers have written about them?

Ans. (I) The Manusmriti (compiled c. 2nd century (CE) laid down the duties of the chandalas. They were expected to live outside the village, use discarded bowls with dogs and donkeys as their wealth. They were to wear the clothes of the dead and eat out of broken dishes wear ornaments of black iron and wander constantly. They were not to walk about in villages and cities at night. They had to handle the bodies of those who had no relatives and act as executioners.

(ii) Much later in the account of his travels the Chinese Buddhist monk Fa-Hien (5th century CE) wrote that the untouchables had to sound a drum in the streets of the town to warn the people of their presence. Another Chinese pilgrim Yuan Chiang (7th century CE) observed that executioners and scavengers were forced to live outside the city and their houses were marked.

Q. Why is 6th century BC regarded as major turning point in the early Indian History?

Ans: - The sixth century BC saw the rise of many states, cities and wide spread use of iron and coins. It also witnessed the growth of different religions like Jainism, Buddhism and Ajvikism.

Q. Which Tamil text is known as Tamil Veda and Why?

Ans: - The Nalayira Divyaprabhandam composed by Alvar saints is known as Tamil Veda because it is regarded as important as four Sanskrit Vedas written by Brahmans.

Q. How   do   inscription   help   in   reconstruction   of   history? 

ANS: - 1.Knowledge about the rulers and their achievements.

1. Scripts and language of that time.

2. Land grant and economic condition.

3. Extent of the empire.

4. Social and religious condition of kingdom.

Q. Who were the  first  to  issue  gold coins?  What  light  do coins  throw  on the  economy  of  the  time? 

Ans: - Kushans were the first rulers of India to issue gold coins found in various parts of north and

central India. But the most spectacular gold coins were issued by Guptas. Hoards of roman gold coins have also been found in south India indicating profitable trade transactions. However after 6th century CE gold coins were not found in large quantities indicating some kind of economic crises.

Q. What do you mean by the term epic?

Ans. Epic means a larger poetic text which narrates the life and achievements of the heroes or the past of a nation.

Q. Give Two Importance of Manusmriti?

Ans. Manusmriti is considered the most o important Dharma Sutra and Dharmashastras. It was compiled between 200 BCE and 200 CE. This laid down rules governing social life.

(I) It gives vital information about law and social practices.

(II) It influences the Hindu way of life even today.

Q. Why the war Mahabharata was fought? What was its result?

Ans. The war of Mahabharata was fought between cousin brother’s i.e, Pandavas and Kaurvas in Kurukshetra Haryana to acquire land and authority. The war was won by the Pandavas.

Q. What do you mean by term Kula and Jati?

Ans. Sanskrit texts use the term Kula to designate families and jati for the larger network of Kin-folk.

Q. What is Endogamy and Exogamy?

Ans. Endogamy refers to marriage within a unit. This could be a kin, group, caste or a group living in the same locality. Exogamy refers to marriage outside the unit (gotra). Exogamy is sanctioned in Brahmanical texts while as endogamy is in contrast to Brahmanical texts.

Q. What did B.B.Lal note about   the   houses   in   the   second   phase   of   Mahabharata   period   Explain? 

Ans. B.B.lal has given a description about the houses in the second phase. He noted that within the limited area excavated, no definite plans of houses were obtained, but walls of mud and mud bricks were duly encountered. The discovery of mud plaster with prominent reed marks suggested that some of the houses had reed walls plastered over with mud.

Points to Remember:

1. Patriliny means tracing descent from grandfather to father to son to grandson. E.g. Pandavas.

2. Matriliny means tracing descent from mother e.g. Satvahansa.

3. Polygamy refers to the practice of having more than one spouse at a time.

4. Polyandry refers to one woman with multiple husbands.

5. Polygyny is an example in which a man has more than one wife at a time.

6. Brahmins classified people on the basis of gotra. Gotra is named after a vedic Seer. Members of same gotra could not marry. After marriage woman was supposed to adopt husbands gotra.

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